無政府共産主義

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無政府共産主義（英: anarchist communism）は、無政府主義（アナキズム）の潮流の一つ。人の自由と自律を尊び、不当な支配階級や経済格差の無い社会を目指し、「能力に応じて働き、必要に応じて受け取る」という原理を唱える。個人各々が自主的に組み合って、資源分配や生産方針を直接民主で決定する[1][2]。「能力に応じて働く」というのは、他者から雇用されるまでもなく自ら出来るところで生産するということで、生産手段が社会の全員へ開放されているのを前提する。「必要に応じて受け取る」というのは、生活に必要な財を貨幣等と交換せずに獲得できるということで、財が社会の富として充分に随時生産されているのを前提する。雇用者や富豪などの少数が利益目的で階級的・非民主的に生産・分配・所有を制御するところの資本主義を根本的に批判する[3][4]。ならびに、資本主義型支配に加担してきたとして国家を告発する。各地で個人が直に参与できる直接民主制の小規模共同体を基盤に、下意上達で罷免できる代理人を通じて大規模政策用に形成・改変する連邦群が、従来の国家に代われる、とする。

元来「anarchy」は「不当な支配者（archon）・支配階級（hier-archy）の無い（an-）状況」を意味し、これを「無政府」と訳すと問題になることがある。 anarchism は govern （統治）そのものを非難しない。 anarchy における govern が人民の直接民主制で決定された政策を遂行するということであれば、人民直属の遂行組織は government（政府）と呼ばれても不合理ではない。すると、その anarchy 系の government で異なるのは、人民直属であるという点。一方の、諸国について一般に呼ぶ government というものは、「民主主義」とされているものでも、実際には人民直属ではなく、当選した政治家達は人民から独立し、独自の意思決定によって上意下達で人民を統治する組織としての government を形成する。それとは別の government の在り方を anarchist communism は提唱するといえる。

資本主義と国家という上意下達の権威制の廃止、および「能力に応じて働き、必要に応じて受け取る」という共産制、それを目指すのは、マルクス主義と同じである。異なるのは、共産制達成までの過程における国家の役割の解釈。マルクシズム派が革命中における労働者層による国家の「乗っ取り」と以降の緩やかな消滅を求めるのに対し、アナキズム派は革命同時の国家解体を求める。

無政府共産主義の暴動無政府主義（en:Insurrectionary anarchism）などの潮流は、エゴイスト無政府主義（利己主義的な無政府主義）であり、無政府共産主義を個人の自由の実現のための最良の社会システムだとする[5][6][7]急進的個人主義的無政府主義に強い影響を受けている。多くの無政府共産主義者は無政府共産主義によって、個人と社会の相反する両者の溝が埋まると捉えている[8][9][10]。

無政府共産主義は、フランス革命後の急進的な社会主義者の傾向から生み出された[11][12]が、第一インターナショナルのイタリア支部で初めて思想として確立された[13]。ピョートル・クロポトキンの論理的考察は、後に労働組合肯定派と暴動無政府主義者の分裂時に重要な意味を持った[14]。

これまでの歴史上、最も知られている「無政府共産主義社会」、現在無政府共産主義と呼ばれる思想に基づいていて、世界中の注目を集め、無政府共産主義の歴史的な解釈をつくった社会の例は、スペイン内戦勃発で起きたスペイン革命中のアナキストが実権を握った地域と、ロシア革命中、ネストル・マフノが指導したマフノ運動のウクライナ革命反乱軍の影響下にあった自由地区である。スペイン革命中のスペインのアナキストの指導と尽力で1936年から、アラゴンと、アンダルシアとレバンテの一部を支配し、アナキスト・カタルーニャ（en:Anarchist Catalonia）を守ってきたが、フランコ政権、ナチス・ドイツ、イタリア王国、ソ連から支援されたスペイン共産党による抑圧といった複合的脅威と、資本主義諸国やスペイン共和国政府からの経済・軍事的な制裁措置によって容赦なく滅ぼされた。ロシア革命中には、ネストル・マフノをはじめとするアナキストは、1919年から1921年に赤軍よって滅ぼされるまで、ウクライナ革命反乱軍を使って、フリー・テリトリーをつくり、守ろうとした。

歴史

形成

ファイル:Sylvain Marechal.jpg
シルヴァン・マレシャル

無政府共産主義の潮流が現れたのは、18世紀のイングランド内戦とフランス革命の時期である。イギリスで急進的な土地均分運動を起こしたディガーズ（en:Diggers）を始めたゲラード・ウィンスタンリー（en:Gerrard Winstanley）はThe New Law of Righteousnessという名の論文において、"一切の売買、市場というものは存在してはいけない。地球全体が何人にも共有された財産でなければならない"と述べ、また"他人を支配する存在はいてはいけない。ただ自分だけが自分自身の支配者でなくてはならない"と述べた[11]。フランス革命では、シルヴァン・マレシャル（en:Sylvain Maréchal）がManifesto of the Equals(1796年)において、"地球からの恵みの共有"を要求し、"豊かな者と貧しい者の、貴族と賤民の、主人と使用人の、統治者と被統治者の反感を催させるような区別"の消滅を望んだ[11]。

初めて自身を"リバタリアン"と自称したジョセフ・デジャキュ（en:Joseph Déjacque）が、初期の無政府共産主義者である[15]。プルードンの性差別などを批判し[16]、さらにプルードンの理論に反対して"彼らの労働の成果は、それがいくら彼らにとって当然であったとしても、彼らの権利なのではなく、彼らの欲求を満たすことである。"と主張した[11][17]。アナキストで歴史家のマックス・ネットラウ（en:Max Nettlau）によると、「リバタリアン共産主義」という語は、1880年11月、フランスのアナキストの大会が、思想をより明確に定義したときに初めて使用された[18]。後に4巻からなるAnarchist Encyclopediaを立ち上げ編集した、フランス人アナキストでありジャーナリストのセバスティアン・フォーレ（en:Sébastien Faure）はルイーズ・ミシェルとともに1895年にデジャキュの思想を受け継ぐ週刊誌Le Libertaire（英訳:The Libertarian）を始めた[19]。

The collectivist anarchists advocated remuneration for the type and amount of labor adhering to the principle "to each according to deeds";[20] but held out the possibility of a post-revolutionary transition to a communist system of distribution according to need. As Bakunin's associate, James Guillaume, put it in his essay, Ideas on Social Organization (1876), "When... production comes to outstrip consumption... [e]veryone will draw what he needs from the abundant social reserve of commodities, without fear of depletion; and the moral sentiment which will be more highly developed among free and equal workers will prevent, or greatly reduce, abuse and waste."[21]

第一インターナショナル

"「第一インターナショナル」"

Anarchist communism as a coherent, modern economic-political philosophy was first formulated in the Italian section of the First International by Carlo Cafiero, Emilio Covelli, Errico Malatesta, Andrea Costa and other ex-Mazzinian Republicans.[22] Out of respect for Mikhail Bakunin, they did not make their differences with collectivist anarchism explicit until after Bakunin's death.[23] The collectivist anarchists sought to collectivize ownership of the means of production while retaining payment proportional to the amount and kind of labor of each individual, but the anarcho-communists sought to extend the concept of collective ownership to the products of labor as well. While both groups argued against capitalism, the anarchist communists departed from Proudhon and Bakunin, who maintained that individuals have a right to the product of their individual labor and to be remunerated for their particular contribution to production. But, Errico Malatesta put it: "...instead of running the risk of making a confusion in trying to distinguish what you and I each do, let us all work and put everything in common. In this way each will give to society all that his strength permits until enough is produced for every one; and each will take all that he needs, limiting his needs only in those things of which there is not yet plenty for every one."[24]

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Errico Malatesta

Cafiero explains in Anarchy and Communism (1880) that private property in the product of labor will lead to unequal accumulation of capital and, therefore, the reappearance of social classes and their antagonisms, and thus the resurrection of the state: "If we preserve the individual appropriation of the products of labour, we would be forced to preserve money, leaving more or less accumulation of wealth according to more or less merit rather than need of individuals."[11] At the Florence Conference of the Italian Federation of the International in 1876, held in a forest outside Florence due to police activity, they declared the principles of anarcho-communism, beginning with:

"The Italian Federation considers the collective property of the products of labour as the necessary complement to the collectivist programme, the aid of all for the satisfaction of the needs of each being the only rule of production and consumption which corresponds to the principle of solidarity. The federal congress at Florence has eloquently demonstrated the opinion of the Italian International on this point..."

The above report was made in an article by Malatesta and Cafiero in the (Swiss) Jura Federation's bulletin later that year.

ピョートル・クロポトキン

"「ピョートル・クロポトキン」"

Peter Kropotkin, often seen as the most important theorist of anarchist communism, outlined his economic ideas in The Conquest of Bread and Fields, Factories and Workshops. Kropotkin felt that co-operation is more beneficial than competition, arguing in his major scientific work Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution that this was well-illustrated in nature. He advocated the abolition of private property through the "expropriation of the whole of social wealth" by the people themselves,[25] and for the economy to be co-ordinated through a horizontal network of voluntary associations[26] where goods are distributed according to the physical needs of the individual, rather than according to labor.[27] He further argued that these "needs," as society progressed, would not merely be physical needs but "[a]s soon as his material wants are satisfied, other needs, of an artistic character, will thrust themselves forward the more ardently. Aims of life vary with each and every individual; and the more society is civilized, the more will individuality be developed, and the more will desires be varied."[28]

He maintained that, in anarcho-communism:

...houses, fields, and factories will no longer be private property, and that they will belong to the commune or the nation and money, wages, and trade would be abolished. — Peter Kropotkin, The Conquest of Bread[29]

Individuals and groups would use and control whatever resources they needed, as the aim of anarchist communism was to place "the product reaped or manufactured at the disposal of all, leaving to each the liberty to consume them as he pleases in his own home."[30] He supported the expropriation of property to ensure that everyone would have access to what they needed without being forced to sell their labour to get it.

We do not want to rob any one of his coat, but we wish to give to the workers all those things the lack of which makes them fall an easy prey to the exploiter, and we will do our utmost that none shall lack aught, that not a single man shall be forced to sell the strength of his right arm to obtain a bare subsistence for himself and his babes. This is what we mean when we talk of Expropriation... — Peter Kropotkin, The Conquest of Bread[31]

He said that a "peasant who is in possession of just the amount of land he can cultivate," and "a family inhabiting a house which affords them just enough space... considered necessary for that number of people" and the artisan "working with their own tools or handloom" would not be interfered with,[32] arguing that "[t]he landlord owes his riches to the poverty of the peasants, and the wealth of the capitalist comes from the same source."[32]

In summation, Kropotkin described an anarchist communist economy as functioning like this:

Imagine a society, comprising a few million inhabitants, engaged in agriculture and a great variety of industries--Paris, for example, with the Department of Seine-et-Oise. Suppose that in this society all children learn to work with their hands as well as with their brains. Admit that all adults, save women, engaged in the education of their children, bind themselves to work 5 hours a day from the age of twenty or twenty-two to forty-five or fifty, and that they follow occupations they have chosen in any one branch of human work considered necessary. Such a society could in return guarantee well-being to all its members; that is to say, a more substantial well-being than that enjoyed to-day by the middle classes. And, moreover, each worker belonging to this society would have at his disposal at least 5 hours a day which he could devote to science, art, and individual needs which do not come under the category of necessities, but will probably do so later on, when man's productivity will have augmented, and those objects will no longer appear luxurious or inaccessible. Peter Kropotkin, The Conquest of Bread[33]

While many anarcho-communists are opposed to trade, some post-left and post-scarcity anarcho-communists, and ones with syndicalist sympathies, are not opposed to trade. Some support a non-monetary form of trade in the form of non-monetary commons. Others such as Tiziana Terranova easily see anarcho-communism being compatible with a non-hierarchical, open access, free association, non-monetary form of trade such as P2P.[34]

Organizationalism vs. insurrectionarism

"「en:Insurrectionary anarchism」"

"In 1876, at the Berne conference of the International Working Men's Association, the Italian anarchist Errico Malatesta argued that the revolution "consists more of deeds than words", and that action was the most effective form of propaganda. In the bulletin of the Jura Federation he declared "the Italian federation believes that the insurrectional fact, destined to affirm socialist principles by deed, is the most efficacious means of propaganda".[35] "

As anarcho-communism emerged in the mid 19th century it had an intense debate with bakuninist collectivism and as such within the anarchist movement over participation in syndicalism and the workers movement as well as on other issues.[14] So "In the theory of the revolution" of anarcho-communism as elaborated by Peter Kropotkin and others "it is the risen people who are the real agent and not the working class organised in the enterprise (the cells of the capitalist mode of production) and seeking to assert itself as labour power, as a more 'rational' industrial body or social brain (manager) than the employers.".[14]

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Johann Most influential German-American anarcho-communist advocate of insurrectionary anarchism

So "between 1880 and 1890"[14] with the "perspective of an immanent revolution,"[14] who was "opposed to the official workers' movement, which was then in the process of formation (general Social Democratisation). They were opposed not only to political (statist) struggles but also to strikes which put forward wage or other claims, or which were organised by trade unions."[14] But "While they were not opposed to strikes as such, they were opposed to trade unions and the struggle for the eight-hour day. This anti-reformist tendency was accompanied by an anti-organisational tendency, and its partisans declared themselves in favour of agitation amongst the unemployed for the expropriation of foodstuffs and other articles, for the expropriatory strike and, in some cases, for 'individual recuperation' or acts of terrorism."[14]

But after Peter Kropotkin along others decided to enter labor unions after their initial reservations,[14] there remained "the anti-syndicalist anarchist-communists, who in France were grouped around Sebastien Faure's Le Libertaire. From 1905 onwards, the Russian counterparts of these anti-syndicalist anarchist-communists become partisans of economic terrorism and illegal 'expropriations'."[14] Illegalism as a practice emerged and within it "The acts of the anarchist bombers and assassins ("propaganda by the deed") and the anarchist burglars ("individual reappropriation") expressed their desperation and their personal, violent rejection of an intolerable society. Moreover, they were clearly meant to be exemplary , invitations to revolt."[36]

Proponents and activists of these tactics among others included Johann Most, Luigi Galleani, Victor Serge, Giuseppe Ciancabilla and Severino Di Giovanni. The Italian Giuseppe Ciancabilla (1872–1904) wrote in "Against organization" that "we don't want tactical programs, and consequently we don't want organization. Having established the aim, the goal to which we hold, we leave every anarchist free to choose from the means that his sense, his education, his temperament, his fighting spirit suggest to him as best. We don't form fixed programs and we don't form small or great parties. But we come together spontaneously, and not with permanent criteria, according to momentary affinities for a specific purpose, and we constantly change these groups as soon as the purpose for which we had associated ceases to be, and other aims and needs arise and develop in us and push us to seek new collaborators, people who think as we do in the specific circumstance."[37]

Revolution, platformism and synthesism

"「en:Anarchism_in_Russia#The_First_Russian_Revolution」、「en:Free Territory」、「en:Platformism」、および「en:Synthesis anarchism」"

In Ukraine the anarcho-communist guerrilla leader Nestor Makhno led an independent anarchist army in Ukraine during the Russian Civil War. A commander of the peasant Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine, also known as the Anarchist Black Army, Makhno led a guerrilla campaign during the Russian Civil War. The revolutionary autonomous movement of which he was a part made various tactical military pacts while fighting various forces of reaction and organizing the Free Territory of Ukraine, an anarchist society, committed to resisting state authority, whether capitalist or Bolshevik.[38][39] After successfully repelling Austro-Hungarian, White, and Ukrainian Nationalist forces, the Makhnovists militia forces and anarchist communist territories in the Ukraine were eventually crushed by Bolshevik military forces.

In Mexico Ricardo Flores Magón was one of the major thinkers of the Mexican Revolution and the Mexican revolutionary movement in the Partido Liberal Mexicano. Kropotkin's The Conquest of Bread, which Flores Magón considered a kind of anarchist bible, served as basis for the short-lived revolutionary communes in Baja California during the "Magónista" Revolt of 1911.

ファイル:Machno.jpg
Nestor Makhno

A group of exiled Russian anarchists attempted to address and explain the anarchist movement's failures during the Russian Revolution. They wrote the Organizational Platform of the General Union of Anarchists which was written in 1926 by Dielo Truda ("Workers' Cause"). The pamphlet is an analysis of the basic anarchist beliefs, a vision of an anarchist society, and recommendations as to how an anarchist organization should be structured. The four main principles by which an anarchist organization should operate, according to the Platform, are ideological unity, tactical unity, collective action, and federalism. The platform argues that "We have vital need of an organization which, having attracted most of the participants in the anarchist movement, would establish a common tactical and political line for anarchism and thereby serve as a guide for the whole movement".

The Platform attracted strong criticism from many sectors on the anarchist movement of the time including some of the most influential anarchists such as Voline, Errico Malatesta, Luigi Fabbri, Camillo Berneri, Max Nettlau, Alexander Berkman,[40] Emma Goldman and Gregori Maximoff.[41] Malatesta, after initially opposing the Platform, later came to agreement with the Platform confirming that the original difference of opinion was due to linguistic confusion: "...I find myself more or less in agreement with their way of conceiving the anarchist organisation (being very far from the authoritarian spirit which the "Platform" seemed to reveal) and I confirm my belief that behind the linguistic differences really lie identical positions." [42]

Two texts were made by the anarchist communists Sebastian Faure and Volin as responses to the Platform, each proposing different models, are the basis for what became known as the organisation of synthesis, or simply "synthesism".[43] Voline published in 1924 a paper calling for "the anarchist synthesis" and was also the author of the article in Sebastian Faure's Encyclopedie Anarchiste on the same topic.[44] The main purpose behind the synthesis was that the anarchist movement in most countries was divided into three main tendencies: communist anarchism, anarcho-syndicalism, and individualist anarchism[44] and so such an organization could contain anarchists of this 3 tendencies very well. Faure in his text "Anarchist synthesis" has the view that "these currents were not contradictory but complementary, each having a role within anarchism: anarcho-syndicalism as the strength of the mass organisations and the best way for the practice of anarchism; libertarian communism as a proposed future society based on the distribution of the fruits of labour according to the needs of each one; anarcho-individualism as a negation of oppression and affirming the individual right to development of the individual, seeking to please them in every way.[43]

経済理論

テンプレート:Ref improve section Anarcho-communism stresses egalitarianism and the abolition of social hierarchy and class distinctions arising from unequal wealth distribution, as well as the abolition of private property and money. Replacing these approaches would be collective production and distribution of wealth by means of voluntary association. In anarchist communism, the state and private property would no longer exist. Each individual and group would be free to contribute to production and to satisfy their needs based on their own choice. Systems of production and distribution would be managed by their participants.

The abolition of wage labor is central to anarchist communism. With distribution of wealth being based on self-determined needs, people would be free to engage in whatever activities they found most fulfilling and would no longer have to engage in work for which they have neither the temperament nor the aptitude.

Anarchist communists argue that there is no valid way of measuring the value of any one person's economic contributions because all wealth is a collective product of current and preceding generations.[45] For instance, one could not measure the value of a factory worker's daily production without taking into account how transportation, food, water, shelter, relaxation, machine efficiency, emotional mood etc. contributed to their production. To truly give numerical economic value to anything, an overwhelming amount of externalities and contributing factors would need to be taken into account – especially current or past labor contributing to the ability to utilize future labor. As Kropotkin put it: "No distinction can be drawn between the work of each man. Measuring the work by its results leads us to absurdity; dividing and measuring them by hours spent on the work also leads us to absurdity. One thing remains: put the needs above the works, and first of all recognize the right to live, and later on, to the comforts of life, for all those who take their share in production.."[46]

Anarchist communists argue that any economic system based on wage labor and private property requires a coercive state apparatus to enforce property rights and to maintain unequal economic relationships that inevitably arise from differences in wages or amount of property. They further argue that markets and systems of currency divide labor into classes and assign arbitrary numerical values to an individual's work and attempt to regulate production, consumption and distribution. They argue that money restricts an individual's ability to consume the products of their labor by limiting their intake with prices and wages. Anarchist communists recognize money as fundamentally quantitative in nature, rather than qualitative. They believe production should be a qualitative matter, and that consumption and distribution should be self-determined by each individual without arbitrary value assigned to labor, goods and services by others. In place of a market, most anarcho-communists support a currency-less gift economy where goods and services are produced by workers and distributed in community stores where everyone (including the workers who produced them) is essentially entitled to consume whatever they want or need as "payment" for their production of goods and services. A gift economy does not necessarily involve an immediate return (such as with remuneration); compensation comes in the form of whatever the person decides is of equal value to their products of labor (what is commonly called bartering). Any limits on production and distribution would be determined by the individuals within the groups involved, rather than by capitalist owners, investors, banks or other artificial market pressures.

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The Conquest of Bread by Peter Kropotkin, influential work which presents the economic vision of anarcho-communism

Communist anarchism shares many traits with collectivist anarchism but has defining differences. Collectivist anarchism believes in collective ownership but communist anarchism negates the entire concept of ownership in favor of the concept of usage.[47] Thus, things are seen as either private possessions used by an individual, or social possessions used to produce for society. Anarcho-communists believe that means of production should not be owned by any one person or entity, leaving it free to be used by individuals for their own self-determined needs and wants. Land and housing would no longer be subject to rent or property taxes (and therefore, its use would be free of eviction threats). It would instead be subject simply to the desires of occupants on an egalitarian basis. For example, in an apartment building in which many live, no one person would have a say in the arrangements. All who live there would be involved in decisionmaking. It's typically argued that everyone should share certain responsibilities on a revolving-door basis rather than relegate them to any particular individual. This way, no one would get stuck doing labor considered relatively degrading.

Crucially, the abstract relationship of "landlord" and "tenant" would no longer exist, as such titles are held to occur under conditional legal coercion and are not absolutely necessary to occupy buildings or spaces (intellectual property rights would also cease). In addition to believing rent and other fees are exploitative, anarcho-communists feel these are arbitrary pressures inducing people to carry out unrelated functions. For example, they question why one should have to work for 'X hours' a day to merely live somewhere. So instead of working conditionally for the sake of the wage earned, they believe in working directly for the objective at hand. From this it follows that, rather than land being for sale or rent, vacant land and housing would be freely taken regardless of one's employment or financial status (essentially, the "for sale" sign could be replaced by a "vacant" sign). Therefore, in anarcho-communist theory, land used by individuals for themselves or their families, or productive property used to produce for an individual (such as a small farm), would be considered private possessions rather than social possessions. The individual would be perfectly free to create something and keep it as long as it is not a crucial means of production for the community or general public. So an artist's paintbrushes would not need outside approval to be utilized, and the same basic principle would apply to other personal items such as one's toothbrush, musical instruments or book collection, which others needn't tamper with. However, if the matter at hand involves production for society (such as a factory which makes toothbrushes, musical instruments or books), it would become a social possession, accountable to all who work within it and the consuming public. In that regard, anarcho-communism could be considered a compromise between collective and individual use.[48]

Anarcho-communists reject mutualist economics because they believe that market competition, even non-capitalist markets, inherently create inequalities in wealth and land which would lead to inequalities of power - thus the recreation of the State and capitalism as some workers would have more access to capital and defence force than others. They reject collectivist economics arguing that remuneration would require a type of currency, which, again, anarcho-communists reject as an artificial measurement of the value of labor. They further argue that those who are not part of collective groups or unions in workers' councils and collectives could be alienated from access to capital, and thus promote free common use over ownership by society.

哲学的議論

モチベーション

Anarchist communists reject the claim that wage labor is necessary because people are by "nature" lazy and selfish. They point out that even the so-called "idle rich" sometimes find useful things to do despite having all their needs satisfied by the labour of others. Anarcho-communists generally do not agree with the belief in a pre-set 'human nature', arguing that human culture and behavior is very largely determined by socialization. Many, like Peter Kropotkin, also believe that human evolutionary tendency is for humans to cooperate with each other for mutual benefit and survival instead of existing as lone competitors.[49]

While anarchist communists Peter Kropotkin and Murray Bookchin believed that the members of such a society would spontaneously perform all necessary labour because they would recognize the benefits of communal enterprise and mutual aid,[50]テンプレート:Page needed others such as Nestor Makhno and Ricardo Flores Magon had the conviction that all those able to work in an anarchist communist society should be obligated to do so, excepting groups like children, the elderly, the sick, or the infirm.[51][52][53][54] Kropotkin did not think laziness or sabotage would be a major problem in an authentically anarchist-communist society, but he did agree that a freely associated anarchist commune could, and probably should, deliberately disassociate from those not fulfilling their communal agreement to do their share of work.[55]

自由、仕事、レジャー

Anarchist communists support communism as a means for ensuring the greatest freedom and well-being for everyone, rather than only the wealthy and powerful. In this sense, anarchist communism is a profoundly egalitarian philosophy.

Anarchist communism as an anarchist philosophy is against hierarchy in all its forms[56]. Anarchist communists do not think that anyone has the right to be anyone else's master, or 'boss' as this is a concept of capitalism and the state and implies authority over the individual. Some contemporary anarchist communists and advocates of post-left anarchy such as Bob Black reject the concept of work altogether in favor of turning necessary subsistence tasks into voluntary free play.[57]

Peter Kropotkin said that the main authoritarian mistakes in communist experiments of the past were their being based on "religious enthusiasm"[58] and the desire to live "as a family"[59] where the individual had to "submit to the dictates of a punctilious morality".[60] For him anarcho-communism should be based on the right of free association and dissasociation for individuals and groups and on significantly lowering the amount of hours each individual dedicates to necessary labor.[61] He says that "to recognise a variety of occupations as the basis of all progress and to organise in such a way that man may be absolutely free during his leisure time, whilst he may also vary his work, a change for which his early education and instruction will have prepared him — this can easily be put in practice in a Communist society — this, again, means the emancipation of the individual, who will find doors open in every direction for his complete development."[61]

個人主義と集団主義

Some anarcho-communists (and collectivist anarchists as well) reject "individualism" and "collectivism" as illusory concepts.[62] They argue that an individual sacrificing themself for the "greater good" or being ruled by the "community" or "society" is not possible because society is composed of individuals rather than being a cohesive unit separate from the individual, and argue that collective control over the individual is tyrannical and un-anarchistic.[63] Others, such as Lucien van der Walt and Michael Schmidt, argue that: "The anarchists did not ... identify freedom with the right of everybody to do exactly what one pleased but with a social order in which collective effort and responsibilities- that is to say, obligations- would provide the material basis and social nexus in which individual freedom could exist." They argued that "genuine freedom and individuality could only exist in a free society" and that in contrast to "misanthropic bourgeois individualism" anarchism was based in "a deep love of freedom, understood as a social product, a deep respect for human rights, a profound celebration of humankind and its potential and a commitment to a form of society where a 'true individuality' was irrevocably linked to 'the highest communist socieability'"[64]

Egoist philosophical positions are important in anarcho-communist insurrectionary anarchism. In the early 20th century the Italian individualist anarchist Renzo Novatore advocated both revolution and anarcho-communism when he spoke that "revolution is the fire of our will and a need of our solitary minds; it is an obligation of the libertarian aristocracy. To create new ethical values. To create new aesthetic values. To communalize material wealth. To individualize spiritual wealth.".[6] From Stirnerist positions he also disrespected private property when he said that "Only ethical and spiritual wealth" was "invulnerable. This is the true property of individuals. The rest no! The rest is vulnerable! And all that is vulnerable will be violated!".[6] This can also be seen in the contemporary writings of insurrectionary anarchism, as can be seen in the work of Wolfi Landstreicher, Alfredo Bonanno and others.[65][66] Post-left anarcho-communist Bob Black after analysing insurrectionary anarcho-communist Luigi Galleani's view on anarcho-communism went as far as saying that "communism is the final fulfillment of individualism...The apparent contradiction between individualism and communism rests on a misunderstanding of both...Subjectivity is also objective: the individual really is subjective. It is nonsense to speak of “emphatically prioritizing the social over the individual,”...You may as well speak of prioritizing the chicken over the egg. Anarchy is a “method of individualization.” It aims to combine the greatest individual development with the greatest communal unity.[7]

On the article by Max Baginski called "Stirner: The Ego and His Own" published in the American anarchist magazine Mother Earth there is the following affirmation "Modern Communists are more individualistic than Stirner. To them, not merely religion, morality, family and State are spooks, but property also is no more than a spook, in whose name the individual is enslaved - and how enslaved! The individuality is nowadays held in far stronger bondage by property, than by the combined power of State, religion and morality...The prime condition is that the individual should not be forced to humiliate and lower himself for the sake of property and subsistence. Communism thus creates a basis for the liberty and Eigenheit of the individual. I am a Communist because I am an Individualist. Fully as heartily the Communists concur with Stirner when he puts the word take in place of demand - that leads to the dissolution of property, to expropriation. Individualism and Communism go hand in hand."[67]

資産

Anarchist communists counter the capitalist conception that communal property can only be maintained by force and that such a position is neither fixed in nature [68] nor unchangeable in practice, citing numerous examples of communal behavior occurring naturally even within capitalist systems.[69]

The revolution and the transition

For platformist anarcho-communist Wayne Price "Today’s proposals for Parecon, in which workers are rewarded for the intensity and duration of their labor in a cooperative economy, would fit into Bakunin’s or Marx’s concept of a transitory, beginning, phase, of a free society...Kropotkin rejected the two-phase approach of the Marxists and the anarchist-collectivists. Instead he proposed that a revolutionary society should “transform itself immediately into a communist society,”, that is, should go immediately into what Marx had regarded as the “more advanced,” completed, phase of communism. Kropotkin and those who agreed with him called themselves “anarchist-communists” (or “communist anarchists”), although they continued to regard themselves as a part of the broader socialist movement.[70]"

Marxist-Leninists believe that without a transitionary period of state control (their interpretation of the dictatorship of the proletariat) it would be impossible for any revolution to maintain the momentum or cohesion to defend the new society against external and internal threats. Friedrich Engels noted: "Without a previous social revolution the abolition of the state is nonsense; the abolition of capital is in itself the social revolution and involves a change in the whole method of production."[71] Alternatively, such quotations have been interpreted by Anarcho-Communists supportive of Marx and Engels to suggest the abolition of capitalism and the state simultaneously, not the creation of a new state. Anarchists reject the Leninist model of the "dictatorship of the proletariat," arguing that any revolutionary minority taking over state power would be just as authoritarian as the ruling class in capitalism to defend the new state, and would eventually constitute itself as a new ruling class. As an extension of this, Anarcho-communists counter-argue that decentralized, stateless collective federations are sufficient to give both power to workers and preserve personal freedom and point to the fact that no socialist state has ever showed signs of "withering away". Again, the Spanish Revolution is cited as an example of successful anarchist military mobilisation, albeit one crushed by superior forces.

無政府共産主義社会の歴史における例

初期

その時点での世界とはまったく異なる、無政府共産主義の建設を目指した試みは、成功したものも失敗したものも含めていくつか存在してきた。無政府共産主義者とグリーン・アナキズム (特に原始的アナキズム)の支持者は、家族のような狩猟採集社会におけるムラは、自然に平等主義が実現されていたことから、無政府共産主義のごく早い形態だとみなす。キリスト教アナキストや一部の歴史家には、初期のキリスト教共同体は無政府共産主義的な性格を持っていたという。清教徒革命時のディガーズ運動（en:Diggers）等の運動は、無政府共産主義運動である。

スペインのアナキストとその後の例

The best known examples of an anarchist communist society, established around the ideas as they exist today, that received worldwide attention and knowledge in the historical canon, are the anarchist territories during the Spanish Revolution and the Free Territory during the Russian Revolution. Through the efforts and influence of the Spanish Anarchists during the Spanish Revolution within the Spanish Civil War, starting in 1936 anarchist communism existed in most of Aragon, parts of the Levante and Andalusia, as well as in the stronghold of Anarchist Catalonia before being brutally crushed by the combined forces of Francoism, Hitler, Mussolini, Spanish Communist Party repression (backed by the USSR) as well as economic and armaments blockades from the capitalist countries and the Spanish Republic itself. The Spanish example, in which high levels of mobilisation and swift improvements to production were implemented by anarchists, is often cited as an example of an anarchist-communist society which saw rapid improvements to both industrial and scientific output.[72] While some exponents of capitalism believe that such a society's productivity and technological progress would stagnate out of lack of monetary incentives.[73]

During the Russian Revolution, anarchists such as Nestor Makhno worked to create and defend- through the Revolutionary Insurrectionary Army of Ukraine- anarchist communism in the Free Territory of the Ukraine from 1919 before being conquered by the Bolsheviks in 1921. Later movements include the free territories of Hungary during the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.

ファイル:Anarchist communism.svg
The flag of the French Fulor Anarcho-Communist movement

近代の例

フリーソフトウェア運動やGNUプロジェクト、コピーレフトの概念は、情報とソフトウェアに分野における贈与経済の形態である。贈与経済は無政府共産主義者が目指す経済体制である[74]。プログラマーがソースコードを書き、公開して、すべての人がそれをコピー、修正、改善できるという仕組みである。プログラマーは世間から評価を得られ、社会の構成員はよりよいプログラムを得られる。マルクス・ギースラーは、論文Consumer Gift Systemsの中で、音楽ダウンロードは、贈与経済をもとにした社会的団結のシステムだと述べている[75][76]。ウィキメディア・コモンズや、ウィキシステム、en:Independent Media Centerのようなオンラインを中心とする団体、運動は、無政府共産主義的な機能を持つともいわれる[74]。

脚注

  1. ↑ (1999年) From Politics Past to Politics Future: An Integrated Analysis of Current and Emergent Paradigms Alan James Mayne Published 1999 Greenwood Publishing Group 316 pages ISBN 0-275-96151-6. Books.google.com. ISBN 9780275961510. Retrieved on 2010年9月20日. 
  2. ↑ (2008-01) Anarchism for Know-It-Alls By Know-It-Alls For Know-It-Alls, For Know-It-Alls Published by Filiquarian Publishing, LLC., 2008 ISBN 1-59986-218-2, 9781599862187 72 pages. Books.google.com. ISBN 9781599862187. Retrieved on 2010年09月20日. 
  3. ↑ Fabbri, Luigi. "Anarchism and Communism." Northeastern Anarchist #4. 1922. 13 October 2002. http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/worldwidemovements/fabbrianarandcom.html
  4. ↑ Makhno, Mett, Arshinov, Valevski, Linski (Dielo Trouda). "The Organizational Platform of the Libertarian Communists". 1926. Constructive Section: [1]を参照
  5. ↑ Christopher Gray, Leaving the Twentieth Century, p. 88.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 "Towards the creative Nothing" by en:Renzo Novatore
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Bob Black. Nightmares of Reason.
  8. ↑ "Communism is the one which guarantees the greatest amount of individual liberty — provided that the idea that begets the community be Liberty, Anarchy...Communism guarantees economic freedom better than any other form of association, because it can guarantee wellbeing, even luxury, in return for a few hours of work instead of a day's work."　（日本語訳:共産主義は個人の最大の自由を保障する。それは自由でアナーキーな共同体というアイデアがもたらされるからだ。1日中の労働の代わりに数時間の労働で健康や安らぎが保障されるため、共産主義は他のいかなる形態の社会よりも経済的自由を保障する。） "Communism and Anarchy" ピョートル・クロポトキン
  9. ↑ This other society will be libertarian communism, in which social solidarity and free individuality find their full expression, and in which these two ideas develop in perfect harmony.（日本語訳:この新たな社会は、社会の団結と自由な個人が最大限実現し、その両者が完璧に調和する、リバタリアン共産主義である。）Organisational Platform of the Libertarian Communists by Dielo Truda (Workers' Cause)
  10. ↑ "I see the dichotomies made between individualism and communism, individual revolt and class struggle, the struggle against human exploitation and the exploitation of nature as false dichotomies and feel that those who accept them are impoverishing their own critique and struggle."（日本語訳:個人主義と共産主義の間に生まれた2つの概念、個人の反乱と階級闘争、搾取に対する抵抗と誤った二分法への自然な抵抗を私は知り、それらを受け入れている者たちが彼らの判断と闘争を悪いものにしてしまっていると気づいた。）"MY PERSPECTIVES" by Willful Disobedience Vol. 2, No. 12
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 Robert Graham, Anarchism - A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas - Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE to 1939), Black Rose Books, 2005
  12. ↑ "Chapter 41: The “Anarchists”" in The Great French Revolution 1789-1793 by Peter Kropotkin
  13. ↑ Nunzio Pernicone, "Italian Anarchism 1864 - 1892", pp. 111-113, AK Press 2009.
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.5 14.6 14.7 14.8 "This inability to break definitively with collectivism in all its forms also exhibited itself over the question of the workers' movement, which divided anarchist-communism into a number of tendencies.""Anarchist-Communism" by Alain Pengam
  15. ↑ Joseph Déjacque, De l'être-humain mâle et femelle - Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque (フランス語)
  16. ↑ Déjacque, Joseph, Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas - Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE-1939)], ed. Robert Graham; includes English translations from The Revolutionary Question and his 1857 letter to Proudhon.
  17. ↑ "l'Echange", article in Le Libertaire no 6, September 21, 1858, New York. [2]
  18. ↑ Nettlau, Max (1996). A Short History of Anarchism. Freedom Press. ISBN 0900384891. 
  19. ↑ Nettlau, Max (1996). A Short History of Anarchism. Freedom Press. ISBN 0900384891. 
  20. ↑ Kropotkin, Peter. The Wages System. 1920. Also available: http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/kropotkin-peter/1920/wage.htm quote: "Such, in a few words, is the organization which the Collectivists desire ... their principles are: collective property in the instruments of labor and remuneration of each worker according to the time spent in productive toil, taking into account the productiveness of his work."
  21. ↑ James Guillaume, Ideas on Social Organization
  22. ↑ Nunzio Pernicone, "Italian Anarchism 1864 - 1892", pp. 111-113, AK Press 2009.
  23. ↑ James Guillaume, "Michael Bakunin - A Biographical Sketch"
  24. ↑ Malatesta, Errico. A Talk About Anarchist Communism Between Two Workers. Also available at: http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_Archives/malatesta/MalatestaATAC.html
  25. ↑ Peter Kropotkin, Words of a Rebel, p99.
  26. ↑ Peter Kropotkin, The Conquest of Bread, p145.
  27. ↑ Marshall Shatz, Introduction to Kropotkin: The Conquest of Bread and Other Writings, Cambridge University Press 1995, p. xvi "Anarchist communism called for the socialization not only of production but of the distribution of goods: the community would supply the subsistence requirements of each individual member free of charge, and the criterion, 'to each according to his labor' would be superseded by the criterion 'to each according to his needs.'"
  28. ↑ Peter Kropotkin, The Conquest of Bread Chapter IX The Need For Luxury
  29. ↑ Kropotkin, Peter Chapter 13 The Collectivist Wages System from The Conquest of Bread, G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York and London, 1906.
  30. ↑ The Place of Anarchism in the Evolution of Socialist Thought
  31. ↑ Kropotkin, Peter The Conquest Of Bread Chapter IV
  32. ↑ 32.0 32.1 Kropotkin Act for yourselves. N. Walter and H. Becker, eds. (London: Freedom Press 1985) [p. 104-5]
  33. ↑ Kropotkin, Peter The Conquest Of Bread Chapter VIII, Ways and Means
  34. ↑ Tiziana Terranova, "Free Labor: Producing Culture for the Digital Economy". 07-26-2005
  35. ↑ "Propaganda by the deed" by Workers Solidarity No 55 published in October 1998
  36. ↑ “"The "illegalists" by Doug Imrie. From "Anarchy: a Journal Of Desire Armed" , Fall-Winter, 1994-95”. Recollectionbooks.com (1954年8月28日). . 2010閲覧.
  37. ↑ "Against organization" by Giuseppe Ciancabilla. Retrieved 2010-06-10.
  38. ↑ Yekelchyk 2007, p 80.
  39. ↑ Charles Townshend, John Bourne, Jeremy Black (1997). The Oxford Illustrated History of Modern War. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0198204272. 
  40. ↑ [http://www.inspiracy.com/black/wooden.html%20 "¿Wooden shoes or platform shoes? on the organizational platform of the libertarian communists" by Bob Black
  41. ↑ — George Carlin. “J.3.4 Why do many anarchists oppose the "Platform"? on An Anarchist FAQ”. Infoshop.org. . 2010閲覧.
  42. ↑ Malatesta, On Collective Responsibility, http://www.nestormakhno.info/english/mal_rep3.htm
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 “"Especifismo and Synthesis/ Synthesism" by Felipe Corrêa”. Anarkismo.net (2009年12月22日). . 2010閲覧.
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 — Lorenzo Kom'boa Ervin. “"J.3.2 What are "synthesis" federations?" in An Anarchist FAQ”. Infoshop.org. . 2010閲覧.
  45. ↑ Alexander Berkman. What Is Communist Anarchism?
  46. ↑ Kropotkin, Peter. "The Collectivist Wage System". The Conquest of Bread, G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York and London, 1906, Chapter 13, Section 4
  47. ↑ Alexander Berkman. What is Anarchism?, p. 217
  48. ↑ Kropotkin Act for yourselves. N. Walter and H. Becker, eds. (London: Freedom Press 1985) [p. 104-5]
  49. ↑ Peter Kropotkin Mutual Aid: A Factor in Evolution[3]
  50. ↑ * Kropotkin, Peter Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, 1998 paperback, London: Freedom Press. ISBN 0-900384-36-0, also at Project Gutenberg
  51. ↑ Dielo Trouda Editoral Group. "Supplement to the Organizational Platform (Questions and Answers)". 2 November 1926. "Supplement to the Organizational Platform (Questions and Answers)"
  52. ↑ Puente, Isaac. "Libertarian Communism". 1932. The Cienfuegos Press Anarchist Review #6. Orkney. English Translation 1982. Also available at: http://flag.blackened.net/liberty/libcom.html
  53. ↑ Berneri, Camilo. "The Problem of Work". pp. 59-82, Why Work?. Vernon Richards (ed.). p. 74
  54. ↑ Flores, Magon; Rivera, Librado; Figueroa, Anselmo; Magon, Enrique Flores. "Manifesto". 23 September 1911. Dreams of Freedom: A Ricardo Flores Magon Reader. Chaz Bufe and Mitchell Cowen Verter (ed.) 2005. pgs. 139,141 & 144
  55. ↑ Kropotkin, Peter The Conquest of Bread, Ch. 12, Objections, first published 1892, also at [4]
  56. ↑ "...whatever else may be said, this much is for sure: the welfare of humanity, which the future can and will bring, lies in communism. It excludes in logical ways all authority and servitude, and therefore equals anarchy." "Anarchist Communism" by Johann Most
  57. ↑ Bob Black. “The Abolition Of Work”. Deoxy.org. . 2010閲覧.
  58. ↑ "nearly all communities were founded by an almost religious wave of enthusiasm. People were asked to become "pioneers of humanity;" to submit to the dictates of a punctilious morality, to become quite regenerated by Communist life, to give all their time, hours of work and of leisure, to the community, to live entirely for the community. This meant acting simply like monks and to demand — without any necessity — men to be what they are not."Peter Kropotkin. "Communism and Anarchy"
  59. ↑ "The second mistake lay in the desire to manage the community after the model of a family, to make it "the great family" They lived all in the same house and were thus forced to continuously meet the same "brethren and sisters." It is already difficult often for two real brothers to live together in the same house, and family life is not always harmonious; so it was a fundamental error to impose on all the "great family" instead of trying, on the contrary, to guarantee as much freedom and home life to each individual." Peter Kropotkin. "Communism and Anarchy"
  60. ↑ “Peter Kropotkin”. Theanarchistlibrary.org (2009年2月25日). . 2010閲覧.
  61. ↑ 61.0 61.1 Peter Kropotkin. "Communism and Anarchy"
  62. ↑ “A.2 What does anarchism stand for?”. 2009年10月25日時点のオリジナルよりアーカイブ。. 2009閲覧.
  63. ↑ The Place of Anarchism in the Evolution of Socialist Thought, p. 14-15
  64. ↑ Schmidt, Michael & van der Walt, Lucien. Black Flame: The Revolutionary Class Politics of Anarchism and Syndicalism (Counter-Power vol 1). I. AK Press. 2009. Page 48
  65. ↑ “The Theory of the Individual: Stirner's Savage Thought”. Theanarchistlibrary.org (1998年8月20日). . 2010閲覧.
  66. ↑ “"At Daggers Drawn with the Existent, its Defenders and its False Critics" by anonymous”. Theanarchistlibrary.org (1905年12月11日). . 2010閲覧.
  67. ↑ Max Baginski. "Stirner: The Ego and His Own" on Mother Earth. Vol. 2. No. 3 MAY, 1907
  68. ↑ Kropotkin, Peter. Mutual Aid
  69. ↑ Colin Ward. Anarchism in Action
  70. ↑ "What is Anarchist Communism?" by Wayne Price
  71. ↑ “Letter from Engels to Theodore Cuno”. Friedrich Engels (1872年). . 2009閲覧.
  72. ↑ Dolgoff, Sam. The Anarchist Collectives, ch. 10
  73. ↑ Donald F. Busky, Communism in History and Theory: From Utopian Socialism to the Fall of the Soviet Union. Praeger/Greenwood 2002, p. 101
  74. ↑ 74.0 74.1 Barbrook, Richard. “The Hi-Tech Gift Economy”. First Monday. http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue3_12/barbrook/. 
  75. ↑ Markus Giesler, Consumer Gift Systems (PDF)
  76. ↑ {{Countless Exchanges in the Gift Economy Transaction.net 1999-05-24}}

参考文献

関連項目

外部リンク

  • anarkismo.net - 無政府共産主義に関するニュース、議論と世界中からの理論
  • libcom.org - イギリスのアナキストとリバタリアン共産主義者のサイト

The Anarchist Library

  • ↑ “Table Of Contents”. Blackrosebooks.net. . 2010閲覧.


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