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| − | {{about||the general language group of Fujian (Hokkien) province|Min Chinese|other uses|Hokkien (disambiguation)}}
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| − | {{see also|Southern Min}}
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| − | {{Infobox language
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| − | |name = Quanzhang
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| − | |altname = Minnan Proper {{lang|zh-tw|閩南語}} <br/> Quanzhang Minnan {{lang|zh-sg|泉漳片}} <br/> Hokkien-Taiwanese {{lang|zh-sg|闽台泉漳话}}
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| − | |nativename = {{lang|zh-tw|閩南話}} / {{lang|zh-sg|闽南话}} <br/>Bân-lâm-oē / Bân-lâm-uē
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| − | |states=[[China]], [[Taiwan]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]] and [[Overseas Chinese|overseas communities]]
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| − | |region=Southern [[Fujian]] province and other south-eastern coastal areas of Mainland China, [[Taiwan]], [[Southeast Asia]]
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| − | |ethnicity = [[Hoklo people|Hoklo]] (subgroup of [[Han Chinese]])
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| − | |speakers = 37 million{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}
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| − | |date =
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| − | |familycolor = Sino-Tibetan
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| − | |fam2 = [[Chinese Language|Chinese]]
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| − | |fam3 = [[Min Chinese|Min]]
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| − | |fam4 = Coastal Min
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| − | |fam5 = [[Southern Min]]
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| − | |dia1 = [[Amoy dialect|Xiamen/Amoy]]
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| − | |dia2 = [[Quanzhou dialect|Quanzhou]]
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| − | |dia3 = [[Zhangzhou dialect|Zhangzhou]]
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| − | |dia4 = [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]]
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| − | |dia5 = [[Singaporean Hokkien|Singaporean]]
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| − | |dia6 = [[Penang Hokkien|Penang]]
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| − | |dia7 = [[Medan Hokkien|Medan]]
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| − | |dia8 = [[Philippine Hokkien|Philippine]]
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| − | |nation = None (one of the statutory languages for public transport announcements in [[Taiwan]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E7%9C%BE%E9%81%8B%E8%BC%B8%E5%B7%A5%E5%85%B7%E6%92%AD%E9%9F%B3%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80%E5%B9%B3%E7%AD%89%E4%BF%9D%E9%9A%9C%E6%B3%95 |script-title=zh:大眾運輸工具播音語言平等保障法 - 维基文库，自由的图书馆 |language=zh |publisher=Zh.wikisource.org |date= |accessdate=2010-09-16}}</ref>)
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| − | |agency = Ministry of Education in Taiwan and NGOs in Taiwan.
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| − | |isoexception = dialect
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| − | |map = Banlamgu.svg
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| − | |mapcaption = Distribution of Southern Min languages. Quanzhang (Hokkien) is dark green.
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| − | |map2 = Hokkien Map.svg
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| − | |mapcaption2 = Distribution of Quanzhang (Minnan Proper) dialects within Fujian Province and Taiwan. Lengna dialect (Longyan Min) is a variant of Southern Min that is spoken near the Hakka speaking region in Southwest Fujian.
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| − | |notice=IPA
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| − | |glotto = hokk1242
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| − | |glottorefname = Hokkien
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| − | |glotto2 = fuki1235
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| − | |glottorefname2 = Fukienese
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| − | }}
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| − | {{Chinese
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| − | |title = Hokkien
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| − | |s = 福建话
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| − | |t = 福建話
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| − | |h = Fuk<sup>5</sup>-gien<sup>4</sup>-fa<sup>4</sup>
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| − | |p = Fújiànhuà
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| − | |mi = {{IPAc-cmn|f|u|2|.|j|ian|4|.|h|ua|4}}
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| − | |y = Fuk<sup>1</sup>-gin<sup>3</sup>-wa<sup>6</sup>
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| − | |poj = Hok-kiàn-oē
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| − | |buc = Hók-gióng-uâ
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| − | |wuu = Foh ji ghae ho
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| − | |altname = Hoklo
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| − | |s2 = 福佬话
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| − | |t2 = 福佬話
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| − | |h2 = Fuk<sup>5</sup>-lau<sup>3</sup>-fa<sup>4</sup>
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| − | |p2 = Fúlǎohuà
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| − | |mi2 = {{IPAc-cmn|f|u|2|.|l|ao|3|.|h|ua|4}}
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| − | |y2 = Fuk<sup>1</sup>-lou<sup>2</sup>-wa<sup>6</sup>
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| − | |poj2 = Hok-ló-oē
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| − | |buc2 = Hók-ló-uâ
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| − | |wuu2 = Foh loh ghae ho
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| − | }}
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| − | '''Hokkien''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɒ|k|i|ɛ|n|,_|h|ɒ|ˈ|k|iː|ɛ|n}};{{efn|They are the most common pronunciations while there is another one cited from [[OxfordDictionaries.com]], {{IPAc-en|h|oʊ|ˈ|k|iː|n}}, which is almost never used actually.}} from {{zh|t={{linktext|福建話}}|poj=Hok-kiàn-oē|c=|s=|p=Fújiànhuà}}){{efn|also '''Quanzhang''' ([[Quanzhou]]-[[Zhangzhou]] / Chinchew–Changchew; [[Bbánlám Hōngggián Pīnyīn Hōngàn|BP]]: Zuánziū–Ziāngziū)}} or {{cns|'''Minnan Proper'''|date=December 2017}} (閩南語/闽南话), is a [[Southern Min]] Chinese dialect group originating from the [[Minnan region]] in the south-eastern part of [[Fujian Province]] in [[Southeastern China]] and [[Taiwan]], and spoken widely there and by the Chinese diaspora in [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Indonesia]], the [[Philippines]] and other parts of [[Southeast Asia]], and by other [[overseas Chinese]] all over the world. It is the mainstream form of [[Southern Min]].
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| − | It is closely related to [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]], though it has limited [[mutual intelligibility]] with it, whereas it is more distantly related to other variants such as [[Hainanese]] and [[Leizhou dialect]].
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| − | Hokkien historically served as the [[lingua franca]] amongst overseas Chinese communities [[Han Chinese subgroups|of all dialects and subgroups]] in Southeast Asia, and remains today as the most spoken [[variety of Chinese]] in the region, including in [[Singaporean Hokkien|Singapore]], [[Penang Hokkien|Malaysia]], [[Medan Hokkien|Indonesia]], [[Philippine Hokkien|Philippines]] and some parts of [[Indochina]] (particularly Thailand, Laos and Cambodia).{{sfnp|West|2010|pp=289-90}}
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| − | The [[Betawi Malay]] language, spoken by some five million people in and around the Indonesian capital [[Jakarta]], includes numerous Hokkien loanwords due to the significant influence of the [[Chinese Indonesian]] diaspora, most of whom are of Hokkien ancestry and origin.
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| − | ==Names==
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| − | Chinese speakers of the Quanzhang variety of Southern Min refer to the mainstream Southern Min language as
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| − | * ''Bân-lâm-gú / Bân-lâm-ōe'' ({{zh|s=闽南语/闽南话|t=閩南語/閩南話|labels=no}}, literally 'language or speech of Southern Min') in Mainland China and Taiwan.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ws.moe.edu.tw/001/Upload/6/RelFile/0/1459/guantsik_960523.pdf|title=臺灣閩南語漢字之選用原則|first=|date=|website=|access-date=}}</ref>
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| − | * ''Tâi-gí'' ({{lang|zh-Hant|臺語}}, literally 'Taiwanese language') in Taiwan.
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| − | * ''Hok-kiàn-ōe'' ({{zh|s=福建话|t=福建話|labels=no}}, literally 'Fujian speech') in Singapore, Malaysia and Indonesia.
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| − | * ''Lán-lâng-ōe'' ({{lang|zh|咱儂話}}, literally 'our people's language') in the Philippines.
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| − | In parts of Southeast Asia and in the English-speaking communities, the term ''Hokkien'' ({{IPA|[hɔk˥kiɛn˨˩]}}) is etymologically derived from the [[Southern Min]] pronunciation for Fujian (福建), the province from which the language hails. In Southeast Asia and the English press, ''Hokkien'' is used in common parlance to refer to the Southern Min dialects of southern Fujian, and does not include reference to dialects of other Sinitic branches also present in Fujian such as [[Eastern Min]] or [[Hakka]]. In [[Chinese linguistics]], these dialects are known by their classification under the '''Quanzhang division''' ({{zh|c=泉漳片|p=Quánzhāng piàn|links=no}}) of [[Min Nan]], which comes from the first characters of the two main Hokkien urban centers of [[Quanzhou]] and [[Zhangzhou]].
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| − | ==Geographic distribution==
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| − | Hokkien originated in the southern area of [[Fujian]] province, an important center for trade and migration, and has since become one of the most common Chinese varieties overseas. The major pole of Hokkien varieties outside of Fujian is Taiwan, where, during the 200 years of [[Taiwan under Qing rule|Qing dynasty rule]], thousands of immigrants from Fujian arrived yearly. The [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese version]] mostly have origins with the [[Quanzhou dialect|Quanzhou]] and [[Zhangzhou dialect|Zhangzhou]] variants, but since then, the [[Amoy dialect]] is becoming the modern [[prestige dialect|prestige standard]] for the language.
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| − | There are many Minnan(Hokkien) speakers among overseas Chinese in Southeast Asia as well as in the [[United States]] ([[Hoklo Americans]]). Many ethnic [[Han Chinese]] emigrants to the region were Hoklo from southern Fujian, and brought the language to what is now [[Burma]] (Myanmar), [[Indonesia]] (the former [[Dutch East Indies]]) and present day [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]] (formerly [[British Malaya|Malaya]] and the [[British Straits Settlements]]). Many of the Minnan dialects of this region are highly similar to Xiamen dialect(Amoy) and Taiwanese Hokkien with the exception of foreign loanwords. Hokkien is reportedly the native language of up to 80% of the [[Chinese Filipino|Chinese people]] in the [[Philippines]], among which is known locally as '''[[Lan-nang]]''' or '''Lán-lâng-oē''' ("Our people’s language"). Hokkien speakers form the largest group of overseas Chinese in Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines.{{Citation needed|date=August 2011}}
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| − | ==Classification==
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| − | {{Unreferenced section|date=December 2017}}
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| − | {{location map+|China Fujian
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| − | | caption=Locations of Hokkien (Quanzhang) varieties in Fujian
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| − | | alt=Map of Fujian and adjacent areas, with markers for the locations of Hokkien varieties
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| − | | width=250|float=right|places=
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| − | {{location map~|China Fujian
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| − | | label=[[Quanzhou]]|lat_deg=24.92|lon_deg=118.58
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| − | | mark=Red pog.svg|position=left}}
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| − | {{location map~|China Fujian
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| − | | label=[[Zhangzhou]]|lat_deg=24.52|lon_deg=117.65
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| − | | mark=Red pog.svg|position=left}}
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| − | {{location map~|China Fujian
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| − | | label=[[Xiamen]]|lat_deg=24.48|lon_deg=118.09
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| − | | mark=Red pog.svg|position=right}}
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| − | }}
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| − | Southern [[Fujian]] is home to three principal Minnan Proper (Hokkien) dialects: [[Quanzhou dialect|Chinchew]], [[Amoy dialect|Amoy]], [[Zhangzhou dialect|Chiangchew]], originating from the cities of [[Quanzhou]], [[Xiamen]] and [[Zhangzhou]](respectively).
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| − | Traditionally speaking, Quanzhou dialect spoken in Quanzhou is the '''Traditional Standard Minnan''', it is the dialect that is used in Liyuan Opera (梨园戏) and Nanying music (南音). Being the '''Traditional Standard Minnan''', Quanzhou dialect is considered to have the purest accent and the most conservative Minnan dialect.
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| − | In the late 18th to the early 19th century, Xiamen (Amoy) became the principal{{citation needed|date=November 2016}} city of southern Fujian. Xiamen (Amoy) dialect is adopted as the '''Modern Standard Minnan'''. It is a hybrid of the Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects. It has played an influential role in history, especially in the relations of [[Western world|Western]] nations with China, and was one of the most frequently learnt dialect of Quanzhang variety by Westerners during the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century.
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| − | Same as Amoy dialect, the '''Modern Standard''' form of Quanzhang accent spoken around the city of Tainan in Taiwan is a hybrid of the Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects. All Quanzhang dialects spoken throughout the whole of Taiwan are collectively known as [[Taiwanese Hokkien]] or just Taiwanese. Used by a majority of the population, it bears much importance from a [[socio-political]] perspective, forming the second (and perhaps today most significant) major pole of the language due to the popularity of Taiwanese-language media.
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| − | ===Southeast Asia===
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| − | The varieties of Hokkien in [[Southeast Asia]] originate from these dialects.
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| − | The Singaporeans, Southern Malaysians and people in Indonesia's [[Riau]] and surrounding [[Riau Islands|islands]] variant is from the Quanzhou area. They speak a distinct form of Quanzhou Hokkien called [[Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien]] (SPMH).
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| − | Among ethnic Chinese inhabitants of [[Penang]], and other states in Northern Malaysia and [[Medan]], with other areas in [[North Sumatra]], [[Indonesia]], a distinct form of Zhangzhou Hokkien has developed. In Penang, it is called [[Penang Hokkien]] while across the [[Malacca Strait]] in Medan, an almost identical variant is known as [[Medan Hokkien]].
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| − | The Philippines variant is mostly from Quanzhou or Amoy (Xiamen), as most of their ancestors are from the aforementioned area.
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| − | ==History==
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| − | {{refimprove section|date=January 2016}}
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| − | Variants of Hokkien dialects can be traced to two sources of origin: [[Quanzhou]] and [[Zhangzhou]]. Both [[Amoy Hokkien|Amoy]] and most [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]] are based on a mixture of Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects, while the rest of the Hokkien dialects spoken in South East Asia are either derived from Quanzhou and Zhangzhou, or based on a mixture of both dialects.
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| − | ===Quanzhou===
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| − | During the [[Three Kingdoms]] period of ancient China, there was constant warfare occurring in the [[Central Plain (China)|Central Plain]] of China. Northerners began to enter into [[Fujian]] region, causing the region to incorporate parts of northern [[Chinese dialects]]. However, the massive migration of northern [[Han Chinese]] into Fujian region mainly occurred after the [[Disaster of Yongjia]]. The [[Jin Dynasty (265–420)|Jìn]] court fled from the north to the south, causing large numbers of northern [[Han Chinese]] to move into Fujian region. They brought the [[Old Chinese]] spoken in the [[Central Plain (China)|Central Plain]] of China from the prehistoric era to the 3rd century into [[Fujian]]. This then gradually evolved into the Quanzhou dialect.
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| − | ===Zhangzhou===
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| − | In 677 (during the reign of [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Emperor Gaozong]]), [[Chen Zheng (Tang Dynasty)|Chen Zheng]], together with his son [[Chen Yuanguang]], led a military expedition to suppress a rebellion of the [[She people]]. In 885, (during the reign of [[Emperor Xizong of Tang]]), the two brothers [[Wang Chao (Tang Dynasty)|Wang Chao]] and [[Wang Shenzhi]], led a military expedition force to suppress the [[Huang Chao|Huang Chao rebellion]].<ref>{{cite book
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| − | | given = Margaret Mian | surname = Yan
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| − | | title = Introduction to Chinese Dialectology
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| − | | publisher = LINCOM Europa | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-3-89586-629-6
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| − | | page = 120
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| − | }}</ref>
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| − | These two waves of migration from the north brought the language of northern [[Middle Chinese]] into the [[Fujian]] region. This then gradually evolved into the Zhangzhou dialect.
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| − | ===Xiamen===
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| − | [[Amoy dialect]] is the main dialect spoken in the Chinese city of [[Xiamen]] and its surrounding regions of [[Tong'an District|Tong'an]] and [[Xiang'an District|Xiang'an]], both of which are now included in the greater Xiamen area. This dialect developed in the late [[Ming dynasty]] when Xiamen was increasingly taking over Quanzhou's position as the main port of trade in southeastern China. Quanzhou traders began travelling southwards to Xiamen to carry on their businesses while Zhangzhou peasants began traveling northwards to Xiamen in search of job opportunities. A need for a common language arose. The Quanzhou and Zhangzhou varieties are similar in many ways (as can be seen from the common place of Henan Luoyang where they originated), but due to differences in accents, communication can be a problem. Quanzhou businessmen considered their speech to be the prestige accent and considered Zhangzhou's to be a village dialect. Over the centuries, [[dialect leveling]] occurred and the two speeches mixed to produce the Amoy dialect.
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| − | ===Early sources===
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| − | Several playscripts survive from the late 16th century, written in a mixture of Quanzhou and Chaozhou dialects. The most important is the ''[[Romance of the Litchi Mirror]]'', with extant manuscripts dating from 1566 and 1581.<ref name="Chappell Peyraube">{{cite book
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| − | | chapter = The analytic causatives of early modern Southern Min in diachronic perspective
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| − | | given1 = Hilary | surname1 = Chappell | given2 = Alain | surname2 = Peyraube
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| − | | pages = 973–1011
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| − | | chapter-url = https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00180707
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| − | | title = Linguistic Studies in Chinese and Neighboring Languages
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| − | | editor-given1 = D.-a. | editor-surname1 = Ho
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| − | | editor-given2 = S. | editor-surname2 = Cheung
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| − | | editor-given3 = W. | editor-surname3 = Pan
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| − | | editor-given4 = F. | editor-surname4 = Wu
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| − | | location = Taipei | publisher = Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica | year = 2006
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| − | }}</ref><ref name="Lien">{{cite book
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| − | | contribution = Min languages | pages = 160–172
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| − | | given = Chinfa | surname = Lien
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| − | | title = The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics
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| − | | editor-given1 = William S.-Y. | editor-surname1 = Wang
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| − | | editor-given2 = Chaofen | editor-surname2 = Sun
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| − | | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 2015
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| − | | isbn = 978-0-19-985633-6
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| − | }}</ref>
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| − | In the early 17th century, Spanish missionaries in the Philippines produced materials documenting the Hokkien varieties spoken by the Chinese trading community who had settled there in the late 16th century:<ref name="Chappell Peyraube"/><ref>{{cite book
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| − | | title = The Language of the Sangleys: A Chinese Vernacular in Missionary Sources of the Seventeenth Century
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| − | | given = Henning | surname = Klöter
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| − | | publisher = BRILL | year = 2011
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| − | | isbn = 978-90-04-18493-0
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| − | }}</ref>
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| − | * ''Diccionarium Sino-Hispanicum'' (1604), a Spanish-Hokkien dictionary, giving equivalent words, but not definitions.
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| − | * ''Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua china'' (1607), a Hokkien translation of the ''[[Doctrina Christiana]]''.<ref>{{cite book
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| − | | chapter = The Min translation of the ''Doctrina Christiana''
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| − | | given = Anne O. | surname = Yue | pages = 42–76 | jstor = 23833463
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| − | | title = Contemporary Studies on the Min Dialects
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| − | | publisher = Chinese University Press | year = 1999
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| − | | series = ''Journal of Chinese Linguistics'' Monograph Series | volume = 14
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| − | }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal
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| − | | title = The Manila Incunabula and Early Hokkien Studies, Part 1
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| − | | given = Piet | surname = Van der Loon
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| − | | journal = Asia Major New Series | volume = 12 | number = 1 | year = 1966 | pages = 1–43
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| − | | url = http://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/file/1716usrgSxY.pdf
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| − | }}</ref>
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| − | * ''Bocabulario de la lengua sangleya'' (c. 1617), a Spanish-Hokkien dictionary, with definitions.
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| − | * ''Arte de la Lengua Chiõ Chiu'' (1620), a grammar written by a Spanish missionary in the Philippines.
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| − | These texts appear to record a Zhangzhou dialect, from the area of Haicheng (an old port that is now part of [[Longhai City|Longhai]]).<ref>{{cite journal
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| − | | title = The Manila Incunabula and Early Hokkien Studies, Part 2
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| − | | given = Piet | surname = Van der Loon
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| − | | journal = Asia Major New Series | volume = 13 | number = 1 | year = 1967 | pages = 95–186
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| − | | url = http://www2.ihp.sinica.edu.tw/file/1745sWSSKnQ.pdf
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| − | }}</ref>
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| − | Chinese scholars produced [[rhyme dictionary|rhyme dictionaries]] describing Hokkien varieties at the beginning of the 19th century:<ref>{{cite book
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| − | | title = Written Taiwanese
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| − | | given = Henning | surname = Klöter
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| − | | publisher = Otto Harrassowitz | year = 2005
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| − | | isbn = 978-3-447-05093-7
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| − | | pages = 64–65
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| − | }}</ref>
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| − | * ''Huìyīn Miàowù'' (彙音妙悟 "Understanding of the collected sounds") was written around 1800 by Huang Qian (黃謙), and describes the Quanzhou dialect. The oldest extant edition dates from 1831.
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| − | * ''Huìjí yǎsútōng shíwǔyīn'' (彙集雅俗通十五音 "Compilation of the fifteen elegant and vulgar sounds") by Xie Xiulan (謝秀嵐) describes the Zhangzhou dialect. The oldest extant edition dates from 1818.
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| − | [[Walter Henry Medhurst]] based his 1832 dictionary on the latter work.
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| − | ==Phonology==
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| − | Hokkien has one of the most diverse [[phoneme]] inventories among Chinese varieties, with more [[consonant]]s than [[Standard Mandarin]], [[Cantonese]] and [[Shanghainese]]. [[Vowel]]s are more-or-less similar to that of Standard Mandarin. Hokkien varieties retain many pronunciations that are no longer found in other Chinese varieties. These include the retention of the {{IPA|/t/}} initial, which is now {{IPA|/tʂ/}} (Pinyin 'zh') in Mandarin (e.g. 'bamboo' 竹 is ''tik'', but ''zhú'' in Mandarin), having disappeared before the 6th century in other Chinese varieties.<ref>{{cite book|last=Kane|first=Daniel |title=The Chinese language: its history and current usage|publisher=Tuttle Publishing|year=2006|pages=100–102|isbn=978-0-8048-3853-5}}</ref>
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| − | ===Initials===
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| − | Southern Min has [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]], unaspirated as well as [[voice (phonetics)|voiced consonant]] initials. For example, the word ''khui'' ({{lang|zh-Hant|開}}; "open") and ''kuiⁿ'' ({{lang|zh-Hant|關}}; "close") have the same vowel but differ only by aspiration of the initial and [[nasalization|nasality]] of the vowel. In addition, Southern Min has [[labial consonant|labial initial consonant]]s such as '''''m''''' in ''m̄-sī'' ({{lang|zh-Hant|{{linktext|毋是}}}}; "is not").
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| − | Another example is ''cha-po͘-kiáⁿ'' ({{linktext|查埔囝}}; "boy") and ''cha-bó͘-kiáⁿ'' ({{linktext|查某囝}}; "girl"), which differ in the second syllable in consonant voicing and in [[tone (linguistics)|tone]].
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| − | ===Finals===
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| − | Unlike Mandarin, Hokkien retains all the final consonants corresponding to those of [[Middle Chinese]]. While Mandarin only preserves the '''n''' and '''ŋ''' finals, Southern Min also preserves the '''m''', '''p''', '''t''' and '''k''' finals and developed the '''ʔ''' ([[glottal stop]]).
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| − | ===Vowels===
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| − | The vowels of Hokkien are {{IPA|/i, y, ɨ, u, e, ə, ɤ, o, ɛ, ɔ, a, ɐ/}}.
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| − | The following table illustrates some of the more commonly seen vowel shifts. Characters with the same vowel are shown in parentheses.
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| − | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
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| − | !bgcolor=lightblue| English
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| − | !bgcolor=lightblue| [[Chinese character]]
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| − | !bgcolor=lightblue| Accent
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| − | !bgcolor=lightblue| [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī]]
| |
| − | !bgcolor=lightblue| [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]
| |
| − | !bgcolor=lightblue| [[Guangdong Romanization#Teochew|Teochew Peng'Im]]
| |
| − | |- bgcolor=lightgrey
| |
| − | |c=en rowspan=2| two
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=2| [[wikt:二|二]]
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Quanzhou]], [[Taipei]]
| |
| − | | lī
| |
| − | | {{IPA|li˧}}
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=2| jĭ ({{IPA|zi˧˥}})<ref>for Teochew Peng'Im on the word 'two', ri6 can [[Teochew dialect#Numerals|also]] be written as dzi6.</ref>
| |
| − | |- bgcolor=lightgrey
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Xiamen]], [[Zhangzhou]], [[Tainan]]
| |
| − | | jī
| |
| − | | {{IPA|dzi˧}}
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |c=en rowspan=2| sick
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=2| [[wikt:病|病]] [[wikt:生|(生)]]
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Quanzhou]], [[Xiamen]], [[Taipei]]
| |
| − | | pīⁿ
| |
| − | | {{IPA|pĩ˧}}
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=2| pēⁿ ({{IPA|pẽ˩}})
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Zhangzhou]], [[Tainan]]
| |
| − | | pēⁿ
| |
| − | | {{IPA|pẽ˧}}
| |
| − | |- bgcolor=lightgrey
| |
| − | |c=en rowspan=2| egg
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=2| [[wikt:卵|卵]] [[wikt:遠|(遠)]]
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Quanzhou]], [[Xiamen]], [[Taiwan]]
| |
| − | | nn̄g
| |
| − | | {{IPA|nŋ˧}}
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=2| nn̆g ({{IPA|nŋ˧˥}})
| |
| − | |- bgcolor=lightgrey
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Zhangzhou]]
| |
| − | | nūi
| |
| − | | {{IPA|nui˧}}
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |c=en rowspan=3| chopsticks
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=3| [[wikt:箸|箸]] [[wikt:豬|(豬)]]
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Quanzhou]]
| |
| − | | tīr
| |
| − | | {{IPA|tɯ˧}}
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=3| tēu ({{IPA|tɤ˩}})
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Xiamen]], [[Taipei]]
| |
| − | | tū
| |
| − | | {{IPA|tu˧}}
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Zhangzhou]], [[Tainan]]
| |
| − | | tī
| |
| − | | {{IPA|ti˧}}
| |
| − | |- bgcolor=lightgrey
| |
| − | |c=en rowspan=3| shoes
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=3| [[wikt:鞋|鞋]] [[wikt:街|(街)]]
| |
| − | |- bgcolor=lightgrey
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Quanzhou]], [[Xiamen]], [[Taipei]]
| |
| − | | oê
| |
| − | | {{IPA| ue˧˥}}
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=2| ôi ({{IPA|tɤ˩}})
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |- bgcolor=lightgrey
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Zhangzhou]], [[Tainan]]
| |
| − | | ê
| |
| − | | {{IPA|e˧˥}}
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |c=en rowspan=3| leather
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=3| [[wikt:皮|皮]] [[wikt:未|(未)]]
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Quanzhou]]
| |
| − | | phêr
| |
| − | | {{IPA|pʰə˨˩}}
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=3| phuê ({{IPA|pʰue˩}})
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Xiamen]], [[Taipei]]
| |
| − | | phê
| |
| − | | {{IPA|pʰe˨˩}}
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Zhangzhou]], [[Tainan]]
| |
| − | | phôe
| |
| − | | {{IPA|pʰue˧}}
| |
| − | |- bgcolor=lightgrey
| |
| − | |c=en rowspan=2| chicken
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=2| [[wikt:雞|雞]] [[wikt:細|(細)]]
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Quanzhou]], [[Xiamen]], [[Taipei]]
| |
| − | | koe
| |
| − | | {{IPA|kue˥˥}}
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=2| koi
| |
| − | |- bgcolor=lightgrey
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Zhangzhou]], [[Tainan]]
| |
| − | | ke
| |
| − | | {{IPA|ke˥˥}}
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |c=en rowspan=2| hair
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=2| [[wikt:毛|毛]] [[wikt:兩|(兩)]]
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Quanzhou]], [[Taiwan]], [[Xiamen]]
| |
| − | | mn̂g
| |
| − | | {{IPA|mŋ}}
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=2| mo
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Zhangzhou]], [[Taiwan]]
| |
| − | | mo͘
| |
| − | | {{IPA|mõ}}
| |
| − | |- bgcolor=lightgrey
| |
| − | |c=en rowspan=3| return
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=3| [[wikt:還|還]]
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Quanzhou]]
| |
| − | | hoan
| |
| − | | {{IPA|huaⁿ}}
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=3|huêng
| |
| − | |- bgcolor=lightgrey
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Xiamen]]
| |
| − | | hâiⁿ
| |
| − | | {{IPA|hãɪ²⁴}}
| |
| − | |- bgcolor=lightgrey
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Zhangzhou]], [[Taiwan]]
| |
| − | | hêng
| |
| − | | {{IPA|hîŋ}}
| |
| − | |- bgcolor=lightgrey
| |
| − | |c=en rowspan=2| Speech
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=2| [[wikt:話|話]] [[wikt:花|(花)]]
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Quanzhou]], [[Taiwan]]
| |
| − | | oe
| |
| − | | {{IPA|ue}}
| |
| − | |c=zh rowspan=2|
| |
| − | |- bgcolor=lightgrey
| |
| − | |c=lan| [[Zhangzhou]]
| |
| − | | oa
| |
| − | | {{IPA|ua}}
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ===Tones===
| |
| − | In general, Hokkien dialects have 5 to 7 [[phonemic]] [[tone (linguistics)|tone]]s. According to the traditional Chinese system, however, there are 7 to 9 tones if the two additional [[entering tone]]s (see the discussion on [[Chinese tone]]). [[Tone sandhi]] is extensive.<ref>{{cite web |date=August 1, 2007 |url=http://www.ntcu.edu.tw/tailo/g_in/form/f_05.html |script-title=zh:無標題文件 |publisher=Ntcu.edu.tw |accessdate=September 16, 2010 |language=Chinese}}</ref> There are minor variations between the [[Quanzhou]] and [[Zhangzhou]] tone systems. Taiwanese tones follow the patterns of Amoy or Quanzhou, depending on the area of Taiwan. Many dialects have an additional phonemic tone ("tone 9" according to the traditional reckoning), used only in special or foreign loan words.<ref>{{cite book |author=周長楫 |script-title=zh:闽南方言大词典 |language=Chinese |publisher=福建人民出版社 |year=2006 |pp=17, 28 |isbn=7-211-03896-9}}</ref>
| |
| − |
| |
| − | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan=2 colspan=2|Tones
| |
| − | |colspan=2 style="border-left: 3px;"|平
| |
| − | |colspan=2 style="border-left: 3px;"|上
| |
| − | |colspan=2 style="border-left: 3px;"|去
| |
| − | |colspan=2 style="border-left: 3px;"|入
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|陰平
| |
| − | !陽平
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|陰上
| |
| − | !陽上
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|陰去
| |
| − | !陽去
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|陰入
| |
| − | !陽入
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !colspan=2|Tone Number
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|1
| |
| − | |5
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|2
| |
| − | |6
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|3
| |
| − | |7
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|4
| |
| − | |8
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan=12|調值
| |
| − | !rowspan=2 style="border-left: 3px;"|[[Xiamen]], Fujian
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|44
| |
| − | !24
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|53
| |
| − | ! -
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|21
| |
| − | !22
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|32
| |
| − | !4
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|東 taŋ<sup>1</sup>
| |
| − | |銅 taŋ<sup>5</sup>
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|董 taŋ<sup>2</sup>
| |
| − | | -
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|凍 taŋ<sup>3</sup>
| |
| − | |動 taŋ<sup>7</sup>
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|觸 tak<sup>4</sup>
| |
| − | |逐 tak<sup>8</sup>
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan=2 style="border-left: 3px;"|[[Taipei]], Taiwan
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|44
| |
| − | !24
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|53
| |
| − | ! -
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|11
| |
| − | !33
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|32
| |
| − | !4
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | | -
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan=2 style="border-left: 3px;"|[[Tainan]], Taiwan
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|44
| |
| − | !23
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|41
| |
| − | ! -
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|21
| |
| − | !33
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|32
| |
| − | !44
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | | -
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan=2 style="border-left: 3px;"|[[Zhangzhou]], Fujian
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|34
| |
| − | !13
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|53
| |
| − | ! -
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|21
| |
| − | !22
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|32
| |
| − | !121
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | | -
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan=2 style="border-left: 3px;"|[[Quanzhou]], Fujian
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|33
| |
| − | !24
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|55
| |
| − | !22
| |
| − | !colspan=2 style="border-left: 3px;"|41
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|5
| |
| − | !24
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | | -
| |
| − | |colspan=2 style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan=2 style="border-left: 3px;"|[[Penang]], Malaysia<ref>https://www.academia.edu/5132554/Complete_and_not-so-complete_tonal_neutralization_in_Penang_Hokkien</ref>
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|33
| |
| − | !23
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|445
| |
| − | ! -
| |
| − | !colspan=2 style="border-left: 3px;"|21
| |
| − | !style="border-left: 3px;"|3
| |
| − | !4
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | | -
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | |style="border-left: 3px;"|
| |
| − | |
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ==Comparison==
| |
| − | The [[Amoy dialect]] (Xiamen) is a hybrid of the [[Quanzhou]] and [[Zhangzhou]] dialects. [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]] is also a hybrid of these two dialects. Taiwanese in northern and coastal [[Taiwan]] tends to be based on the Quanzhou variety, whereas the Taiwanese spoken in central, south and inland Taiwan tends to be based on Zhangzhou speech. There are minor variations in pronunciation and vocabulary between Quanzhou and Zhangzhou dialects. The grammar is generally the same. Additionally, extensive contact with the [[Japanese language]] has left a legacy of Japanese loanwords in Taiwanese Hokkien. On the other hand, the variants spoken in [[Singapore]] and [[Malaysia]] have a substantial number of loanwords from [[Malay language|Malay]] and to a lesser extent, from [[English language|English]] and other Chinese varieties, such as the closely related [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]] and some [[Cantonese]].
| |
| − |
| |
| − | [[Penang Hokkien]] and [[Medan Hokkien]] are based on Zhangzhou dialect, whereas [[Southern Peninsular Malaysian Hokkien]] is based on Quanzhou dialect.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ===Mutual intelligibility===
| |
| − | The Quanzhou dialect, Xiamen dialect, Zhangzhou dialect, Taiwanese are generally mutually intelligible.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/nan|title=Chinese, Min Nan|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-06-12|language=en}}</ref> The overseas variants such as [[Penang Hokkien]] and [[Singaporean Hokkien]] are slightly less [[mutually intelligible]] to mainland Min Nan dialects and Taiwanese dialects due to the existence of foreign loanwords.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The Min Nan varieties of [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]] and Amoy are 84% phonetically similar,{{Citation needed|date=February 2014}} and 34% [[lexical similarity|lexically similar]],{{Citation needed|date=February 2014}} whereas Mandarin and Amoy Min Nan are 62% phonetically similar{{Citation needed|date=February 2014}} and 15% lexically similar.{{Citation needed|date=February 2014}} In comparison, German and English are 60% lexically similar.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=deu |title=German |publisher=Ethnologue |date= |accessdate=16 September 2010}}</ref>
| |
| − |
| |
| − | [[Hainanese]], which is sometimes considered Southern Min, has almost no mutual intelligibility with any form of Hokkien.<ref name=":0" />
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ==Grammar==
| |
| − | Hokkien is an [[analytic language]]; in a sentence, the arrangement of words is important to its meaning.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Ratte|first=Alexander T.|date=May 2009|title=A DIALECTAL AND PHONOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF PENGHU TAIWANESE|publisher=Williams College|location=Williamstown, Massachusetts|page=4|url=http://sanders.phonologist.org/Papers/ratte-thesis.pdf}}</ref> A basic sentence follows the [[subject–verb–object]] pattern (i.e. a [[subject (grammar)|subject]] is followed by a [[verb]] then by an [[object (grammar)|object]]), though this order is often violated because Hokkien dialects are [[Topic-prominent language|topic-prominent]]. Unlike [[synthetic language]]s, seldom do words indicate [[time]], [[gender]] and [[plural]] by inflection. Instead, these concepts are expressed through adverbs, aspect markers, and grammatical particles, or are deduced from the context. Different particles are added to a [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentence]] to further specify its status or [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]].
| |
| − |
| |
| − | A verb itself indicates no [[grammatical tense]]. The time can be explicitly shown with time-indicating adverbs. Certain exceptions exist, however, according to the pragmatic interpretation of a verb's meaning. Additionally, an optional [[Grammatical aspect|aspect]] particle can be appended to a verb to indicate the state of an action. Appending interrogative or exclamative particles to a sentence turns a statement into a question or shows the attitudes of the speaker.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | Hokkien dialects preserve certain grammatical reflexes and patterns reminiscent of the broad stage of [[Archaic Chinese]]. This includes the [[Serial verb construction|serialization of verb phrases]] (direct linkage of verbs and [[verb phrase]]s) and the infrequency of [[nominalization]], both similar to Archaic Chinese grammar.<ref>{{cite book|last=Li|first=Y.C.|title=Contributions to Sino-Tibetan studies|editor=John McCoy, Timothy Light|publisher=Brill Archive|year=1986|chapter=Historical significance of certain distinct grammatical features in Taiwanese|isbn=978-90-04-07850-5}}</ref>
| |
| − |
| |
| − | :{{ruby-zh-p|你|Lí}} {{ruby-zh-p|去|khì}} {{ruby-zh-p|買|bé}} {{ruby-zh-p|有|ū}} {{ruby-zh-p|錶仔|pió-á}} {{ruby-zh-p|無|bo}}？
| |
| − | :You-go-buy-have watch-no (Gloss)
| |
| − | :"Did you go to buy a watch?"
| |
| − |
| |
| − | Choice of grammatical function words also varies significantly among the Hokkien dialects. For instance, 乞 ''khit'' (denoting the causative, passive or dative) is retained in [[Jinjiang, Fujian|Jinjiang]] (also unique to the Jinjiang dialect is 度 ''thoo'') and in [[Jieyang]], but not in [[Longxi County, Fujian|Longxi]] and [[Xiamen]], whose dialects use 互 (''hoo'') instead.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lien|first=Chinfa|year=2002|title=Grammatical Function Words 乞, 度, 共, 甲, 將 and 力 in Li Jing Ji 荔鏡記 and their Development in Southern Min|journal=Papers from the Third International Conference on Sinology|publisher=National Tsing Hua University|pages=179–216|url= http://intranet.ling.sinica.edu.tw/eip/FILES/journal/2007.6.23.25251406.1786841.pdf}}</ref>
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ===Pronouns===
| |
| − | Hokkien dialects differ in their preferred choice of pronouns. For instance, while the second person pronoun ''lí'' (你) is standard in Taiwanese Hokkien, the Teochew loanword ''lú'' (汝) is more common among Hokkien-speaking communities in Southeast Asia. The plural personal pronouns tend to be [[nasalized]] forms of the singular ones. Personal pronouns found in the Hokkien dialects are listed below:
| |
| − | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | ! style="width: 4em" | Person
| |
| − | ! style="width: 8em" | Singular
| |
| − | ! style="width: 8em" | Plural
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !| First person
| |
| − | |我<br/>''góa''
| |
| − | |阮<sup>1, 3</sup>''gún'', ''góan''<br/><br/>咱<sup>2, 3</sup> or 俺<br/>''lán'' or ''án''<br/><br/>我儂<br/>''góa-lâng''
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !| Second person
| |
| − | |你<br/>''lí''<br/><br/>汝<br/>''lú''
| |
| − | | 恁<br/>''lín''<br/><br/>恁儂<br/>''lín lâng''
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !| Third person
| |
| − | | 伊<br/>''i''
| |
| − | | 𪜶<br/>''in''<br/><br/>伊儂<br/>''i lâng''
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − | :<sup>1</sup> Inclusive
| |
| − | :<sup>2</sup> Exclusive
| |
| − | :<sup>3</sup> 儂 (''-lâng'') is typically suffixed in Southeast Asian Hokkien dialects
| |
| − |
| |
| − | [[Possessive pronoun]]s are marked by the particle ''ê'' (的), or its literary version ''chi'' (之). Plural pronouns are typically unmarked (the nasalized final serves as the possessive indicator):<ref name="wt">{{cite book|last=Klöter|first=Henning|title=Written Taiwanese|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|year=2005|isbn=978-3-447-05093-7 |ref=harv}}</ref>
| |
| − |
| |
| − | :{{ruby-zh-p|阮|góan}} {{ruby-zh-p|翁|ang}} {{ruby-zh-p|姓|sèⁿ}} {{ruby-zh-p|陳|Tân}}。
| |
| − | :"My husband's surname is Tan."
| |
| − |
| |
| − | [[Reflexive pronoun]]s are made by appending the pronouns ''ka-kī, ka-tī'' (家己) or ''chū-kí'' (自己).
| |
| − |
| |
| − | Hokkien dialects use a variety of differing [[demonstrative pronoun]]s, which are as follows:
| |
| − | *this - ''che'' (這, 即), ''chit-ê'' (這個, 即個)
| |
| − | *that - ''he'' (許, 彼), ''hit-ê'' (彼個)
| |
| − | *here - ''chia'' (者), ''hia/hiâ'' (遮, 遐), ''chit-tau'' 這兜)
| |
| − | *there - ''hia'' (許, 遐), ''hit-tau'' (彼兜)
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The interrogative pronouns are:
| |
| − | *what - ''siáⁿ-mih'' (啥物), ''sīm-mi̍h'' (甚麼)
| |
| − | *when - ''tī-sî'' (底時), '' kī-sî'' (幾時), ''tang-sî'' (當時), ''sīm-mi̍h-sî-chūn'' (甚麼時陣)
| |
| − | *where - ''to-lo̍h'' (倒落), ''tó-uī'' (佗位, 叨位)
| |
| − | *who - ''siáⁿ-lâng'' (啥人) or ''siáⁿ'' (啥)
| |
| − | *why - ''án-chóaⁿ'' (按怎), ''khah'' (盍)
| |
| − | *how - ''án-chóaⁿ'' (按怎) ''lû-hô'' (如何) ''chóaⁿ-iūⁿ'' (怎樣)
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === Copula ("to be") ===
| |
| − |
| |
| − | States and qualities are generally expressed using [[stative verbs]] that do not require the verb "to be":
| |
| − | :{{ruby-zh-p|我|goá}} {{ruby-zh-p|腹肚|pak-tó͘}} {{ruby-zh-p|枵|iau}}。
| |
| − | :"I am hungry." (lit. I-stomach-hungry)
| |
| − |
| |
| − | With noun complements, the verb ''sī'' (是) serves as the verb "to be".
| |
| − |
| |
| − | :{{ruby-zh-p|昨昏|cha-hng}} {{ruby-zh-p|是|sī}} {{ruby-zh-p|八月節|peh-go̍eh-cheh}}。
| |
| − | :"Yesterday was the Mid-Autumn festival."
| |
| − |
| |
| − | To indicate location, the words ''tī'' (佇) ''tiàm'' (踮), ''teh/leh'' (咧), which are collectively known as the locatives or sometimes coverbs in Chinese linguistics, are used to express "(to be) at":
| |
| − |
| |
| − | :{{ruby-zh-p|我|goá}} {{ruby-zh-p|踮|tiàm}} {{ruby-zh-p|遮|chia}} {{ruby-zh-p|等|tán}} {{ruby-zh-p|你|lí}}。
| |
| − | :"I am here waiting for you."
| |
| − |
| |
| − | :{{ruby-zh-p|伊|i}} {{ruby-zh-p|這馬|chit-má}} {{ruby-zh-p|佇|tī}} {{ruby-zh-p|厝|chhù}} {{ruby-zh-p|裡|lí}} {{ruby-zh-p|咧|teh}} {{ruby-zh-p|睏|khùn}}。
| |
| − | :"He's sleeping at home now."
| |
| − |
| |
| − | ===Negation===
| |
| − | Hokkien dialects have a variety of negation particles that are prefixed or affixed to the verbs they modify. There are five primary negation particles in Hokkien dialects:
| |
| − | #''m̄'' (毋, 呣, 唔)
| |
| − | #''bē, bōe'' (袂, 未)
| |
| − | #''mài'' (莫, 勿)
| |
| − | #''bô'' (無)
| |
| − | #''put'' (不) - literary
| |
| − |
| |
| − | Other negative particles include:
| |
| − | #''biàu'' (嫑) - a contraction of ''bô iàu'' (無要), as in ''biàu-kín'' (嫑緊) {{citation needed|reason=wrong analysis of 無要緊|date=December 2016}}
| |
| − | #''bàng'' (甭)
| |
| − | #''bián'' (免)
| |
| − | #''thài'' (汰)
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The particles ''m̄'' (毋, 呣, 唔) is general and can negate almost any verb:
| |
| − | :{{ruby-zh-p|伊|i}} {{ruby-zh-p|毋|m̄}} {{ruby-zh-p|捌|bat}} {{ruby-zh-p|字|jī}}。
| |
| − | :"He cannot read." (lit. he-not-know-word)
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The particle ''mài'' (莫, 勿), a concatenation of ''m-ài'' (毋愛) is used to negate imperative commands:
| |
| − | :{{ruby-zh-p|莫|mài}} {{ruby-zh-p|講|kóng}}!
| |
| − | :"Don't speak!"
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The particle ''bô'' (無) indicates the past tense:
| |
| − | :{{ruby-zh-p|伊|i}} {{ruby-zh-p|無|bô}} {{ruby-zh-p|食|chia̍h}}。
| |
| − | :"He did not eat."
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The verb 'to have', ''ū'' (有) is replaced by ''bô'' (無) when negated (not 無有):
| |
| − | :{{ruby-zh-p|伊|i}} {{ruby-zh-p|無|bô}} {{ruby-zh-p|錢|chîⁿ}}。
| |
| − | :"He does not have any money."
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The particle ''put'' (不) is used infrequently, mostly found in literary compounds and phrases:
| |
| − | :{{ruby-zh-p|伊|i}} {{ruby-zh-p|真|chin}} {{ruby-zh-p|不孝|put-hàu}}。
| |
| − | :"He is truly unfilial."
| |
| − |
| |
| − | == Vocabulary ==
| |
| − | The majority of Hokkien vocabulary is [[monosyllabic]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Lim|first=Beng Soon|title=Malay Lexicalized Items in Penang Peranakan Hokkien|publisher=Regional Language Centre (RELC)|location=Singapore|page=165|url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf8/soon1998malay.pdf}}</ref>{{better source|date=November 2016}} Many Hokkien [[word]]s have [[cognate]]s in other Chinese varieties. That said, there are also many indigenous words that are unique to Hokkien and are potentially not of [[Sino-Tibetan]] origin, while others are shared by all the [[Min Chinese|Min]] dialects (e.g. 'congee' is 糜 ''mê'', ''bôe'', ''bê'', not 粥 ''zhōu'', as in other dialects).
| |
| − |
| |
| − | As compared to [[Standard Chinese]] (Mandarin), Hokkien dialects prefer to use the monosyllabic form of words, without suffixes. For instance, the Mandarin noun suffix 子 (zi) is not found in Hokkien words, while another noun suffix, 仔 (á) is used in many nouns. Examples are below:
| |
| − | *'duck' - 鸭 ''ah'' or 鴨仔 ''ah-á'' (SC: 鸭子 ''yāzi'')
| |
| − | *'color' - 色 ''sek '' (SC: 顏色 ''yán sè'')
| |
| − |
| |
| − | In other bisyllabic morphemes, the syllables are inverted, as compared to Standard Chinese. Examples include the following:
| |
| − | *'guest' - 人客 ''lâng-kheh'' (SC: 客人 ''kèrén'')
| |
| − |
| |
| − | In other cases, the same word can have different meanings in Hokkien and standard written Chinese. Similarly, depending on the region Hokkien is spoken in, loanwords from local languages (Malay, [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], Burmese, among others), as well as other Chinese dialects (such as Southern Chinese dialects like [[Cantonese]] and [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]]), are commonly integrated into the vocabulary of Hokkien dialects.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === Literary and colloquial readings ===
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The existence of [[literary and colloquial reading]]s is a prominent feature of some Hokkien dialects and indeed in many Sinitic varieties in the south. The bulk of literary readings ({{lang|zh-tw|文讀}}, ''bûn-tha̍k''), based on pronunciations of the vernacular during the [[Tang Dynasty]], are mainly used in formal phrases and written language (e.g. philosophical concepts, surnames, and some place names), while the colloquial (or vernacular) ones ({{lang|zh-tw|白讀}}, ''pe̍h-tha̍k'') are basically used in spoken language and vulgar phrases. Literary readings are more similar to the pronunciations of the Tang standard of Middle Chinese than their colloquial equivalents. <!-------Referring to Min Dong? ------The recent contact with [[Standard Mandarin]] has led to the creation of another strata of literary readings,<ref>{{cite web|last=Zheng|first=Rongbin|title=The Zhongxian (中仙 ) Min Dialect: A Preliminary Study of Language Contact and Stratum-Formation|url=http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CBYQFjAA&url=http%3A%2F%2Fchinalinks.osu.edu%2Fnaccl-20%2Fproceedings%2F30_zheng-r.pdf&ei=Dc4VTq3yM6nzmAXeqIgQ&usg=AFQjCNHmj6Cp3fSfeM48Awc2Aelm407CGg|work=Proceedings of the 20th North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics (NACCL-20). 2008. Volume 1.|accessdate=7 July 2011}}</ref> loaned from Mandarin which may either be similar to Mandarin or, due to the formal nature, may revisit the Tang pronunciations.-------->
| |
| − |
| |
| − | However, some dialects of Hokkien, such as [[Penang Hokkien]] as well as [[Philippine Hokkien]] overwhelmingly favor colloquial readings. For example, in both Penang Hokkien and Philippine Hokkien, the characters for 'university,' 大學, are pronounced ''tōa-o̍h'' (colloquial readings for both characters), instead of the literary reading ''tāi-ha̍k'', which is common in Taiwanese and Mainland Chinese dialects.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | The pronounced divergence between literary and colloquial pronunciations found in Hokkien dialects is attributed to the presence of several strata in the Min lexicon. The earliest, colloquial stratum is traced to the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BCE - 220 CE); the second colloquial one comes from the period of the [[Southern and Northern Dynasties]] (420 - 589 CE); the third stratum of pronunciations (typically literary ones) comes from the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) and is based on the [[prestige dialect]] of [[Chang'an]] (modern day [[Xi'an]]), its capital.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Chappell|first=Hilary|author2=Alain Peyraube|title=The Analytic Causatives Of Early Modern Southern Min In Diachronic Perspective|journal=Linguistic studies in Chinese and neighboring languages|publisher=Centre de Recherches Linguistiques sur l’Asie Orientale|location=Paris, France|pages=1–34|url=http://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/18/07/07/PDF/causatives_early_S_MIN.pdf}}</ref>
| |
| − |
| |
| − | Some commonly seen sound correspondences (colloquial literary) are as follows:
| |
| − | *p- ({{IPA|[p-]}}, {{IPA|[pʰ-]}}) h ({{IPA|[h-]}})
| |
| − | *ch-, chh- ({{IPA|[ts-]}}, {{IPA|[tsʰ-]}}, {{IPA|[tɕ-]}}, {{IPA|[tɕʰ-]}}) s ({{IPA|[s-]}}, {{IPA|[ɕ-]}})
| |
| − | *k-, kh- ({{IPA|[k-]}}, {{IPA|[kʰ-]}}) ch ({{IPA|[tɕ-]}}, {{IPA|[tɕʰ-]}})
| |
| − | *-ⁿ ({{IPA|[-ã]}}, {{IPA|[-uã]}}) n ({{IPA|[-an]}})
| |
| − | *-h ({{IPA|[-ʔ]}}) t ({{IPA|[-t]}})
| |
| − | *i ({{IPA|[-i]}}) e ({{IPA|[-e]}})
| |
| − | *e ({{IPA|[-e]}}) a ({{IPA|[-a]}})
| |
| − | *ia ({{IPA|[-ia]}}) i ({{IPA|[-i]}})
| |
| − |
| |
| − | This table displays some widely used characters in Hokkien that have both literary and colloquial readings:<ref name=mothertongue/><ref name="MoE">{{cite web|script-title=zh:臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典 |trans-title=Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan |url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index.html |publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C. |date=2011}}</ref>
| |
| − |
| |
| − | {{HokkienLiteraryColloquial}}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | This feature extends to [[Chinese numerals]], which have both literary and colloquial readings.<ref name=MoE /> Literary readings are typically used when the numerals are read out loud (e.g. phone numbers), while colloquial readings are used for counting items.
| |
| − | {| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan=2|Numeral
| |
| − | !colspan=2|Reading
| |
| − | !rowspan=2|Numeral
| |
| − | !colspan=2|Reading
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !Literary!!Colloquial!!Literary!!Colloquial
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | 一 || it || chi̍t || 六 || lio̍k || la̍k
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | 二 || colspan="2"|jī, lī || 七 ||colspan="2"| chhit
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | 三 || sam || saⁿ || 八 || pat || peh, poeh
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | 四 || sù, sìr || sì || 九 || kiú || káu
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | 五 || ngó || gō || 十 || si̍p || cha̍p
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === Semantic differences between Hokkien and Mandarin ===
| |
| − | Quite a few words from the variety of [[Old Chinese]] spoken in the state of [[Wu (state)|Wu]], where the ancestral language of Min and Wu dialect families originated, and later words from [[Middle Chinese]] as well, have retained the original meanings in Hokkien, while many of their counterparts in [[Mandarin Chinese]] have either fallen out of daily use, have been substituted with other words (some of which are borrowed from other languages while others are new developments), or have developed newer meanings. The same may be said of Hokkien as well, since some lexical meaning evolved in step with Mandarin while others are wholly innovative developments.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | This table shows some Hokkien dialect words from Classical Chinese, as contrasted to the written Chinese standard, Mandarin:
| |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan=2|Meaning
| |
| − | !colspan=2|Hokkien
| |
| − | !colspan=2|Mandarin
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !Hanji
| |
| − | ![[Pe̍h-ōe-jī|POJ]]
| |
| − | !Hanzi
| |
| − | ![[Pinyin]]
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | eye
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|目睭/目珠}}
| |
| − | | ba̍k-chiu
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|眼睛}}
| |
| − | | yǎnjīng
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | [[chopstick]]
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|箸}}
| |
| − | | tī, tū
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|筷子}}
| |
| − | | kuàizi
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | to chase
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|逐}}
| |
| − | | jiok, lip
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|追}}
| |
| − | | zhuī
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | wet
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|潤}}
| |
| − | | jūn, lūn
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|濕}}
| |
| − | | shī
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | black
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|烏}}
| |
| − | | o͘
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|黑}}
| |
| − | | hēi
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | book
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|冊}}
| |
| − | | chheh
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|書}}
| |
| − | | shū
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | For other words, the classical Chinese meanings of certain words, which are retained in Hokkien dialects, have evolved or deviated significantly in other Chinese dialects. The following table shows some words that are both used in both Hokkien dialects and Mandarin Chinese, while the meanings in Mandarin Chinese have been modified:
| |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !rowspan=2|Word
| |
| − | !colspan=2|Hokkien
| |
| − | !colspan=2|Mandarin
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !POJ
| |
| − | !Meaning<br/><small>(and Classical Chinese)</small>
| |
| − | !Pinyin
| |
| − | !Meaning
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|走}}
| |
| − | | cháu
| |
| − | | to flee
| |
| − | | zǒu
| |
| − | | to walk
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|細}}
| |
| − | | sè, sòe
| |
| − | | tiny, small, young
| |
| − | | xì
| |
| − | | thin, slender
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|鼎}}
| |
| − | | tiáⁿ
| |
| − | | pot
| |
| − | | dǐng
| |
| − | | tripod
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|食}}
| |
| − | | chia̍h
| |
| − | | to eat
| |
| − | | shí
| |
| − | | food
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|懸}}
| |
| − | | kôan
| |
| − | | tall, high
| |
| − | | xuán
| |
| − | | to hang, to suspend
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|喙}}
| |
| − | | chhuì
| |
| − | | mouth
| |
| − | | huì
| |
| − | | beak
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === Words from Minyue ===
| |
| − | Some commonly used words, shared by all{{citation needed|date=November 2016}}{{dubious|date=November 2016}} [[Min Chinese]] dialects, came from the ancient [[Minyue language]]s. [[Jerry Norman (sinologist)|Jerry Norman]] suggested that these languages were [[Austroasiatic]]. Some terms are thought be cognates with words in [[Tai Kadai]] and [[Austronesian]] languages. They include the following examples, compared to the [[Fuzhou dialect]], a [[Min Dong language]]:
| |
| − | {| class="wikitable"
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | !Word
| |
| − | !Hokkien POJ
| |
| − | !Foochow Romanized
| |
| − | !Meaning
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|骹}}
| |
| − | | kha {{IPA|[kʰa˥]}}
| |
| − | | kă {{IPA|[kʰa˥]}}
| |
| − | | foot and leg
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|囝}}
| |
| − | | kiáⁿ {{IPA|[kjã˥˩]}}
| |
| − | | giāng {{IPA|[kjaŋ˧]}}
| |
| − | | son, child, whelp, a small amount
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|睏}}
| |
| − | | khùn {{IPA|[kʰun˨˩]}}
| |
| − | | káung {{IPA|[kʰɑwŋ˧]}}
| |
| − | | to sleep
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|骿}}
| |
| − | | phiaⁿ {{IPA|[pʰjã˥]}}
| |
| − | | piăng {{IPA|[pʰjaŋ˥]}}
| |
| − | | back, dorsum
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|厝}}
| |
| − | | chhù {{IPA|[tsʰu˨˩]}}
| |
| − | | chuó, chió {{IPA|[tsʰwɔ˥˧]}}
| |
| − | | home, house
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|刣}}
| |
| − | | thâi {{IPA|[tʰaj˨˦]}}
| |
| − | | tài {{IPA|[tʰaj˥˧]}}
| |
| − | | to kill, to slaughter
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | ({{lang|zh-tw|肉}})
| |
| − | | bah, mah
| |
| − | | —
| |
| − | | meat
| |
| − | |-
| |
| − | | {{lang|zh-tw|媠}}
| |
| − | | suí
| |
| − | | —
| |
| − | | beautiful
| |
| − | |}
| |
| − |
| |
| − | === Loanwords ===
| |
| − | [[Loanword]]s are not unusual among Hokkien dialects, as speakers readily adopted indigenous terms of the languages they came in contact with. As a result, there is a plethora of loanwords that are not mutually comprehensible among Hokkien dialects.
| |
| − |
| |
| − | [[Taiwanese Hokkien]], as a result of linguistic contact with [[Japanese language|Japanese]]<ref>{{cite web |trans-title=Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan |script-title=zh:臺灣閩南語外來詞|year=2011|publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C. |language=Chinese |accessdate=8 July 2011 |location=Taiwan |url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/index/fulu_wailaici.jsp }}</ref> and [[Formosan languages]], contains many loanwords from these languages. Many words have also been formed as [[calque]]s from Mandarin, and speakers will often directly use Mandarin vocabulary through codeswitching. Among these include the following examples:
| |
| − | *'toilet' - ''piān-só͘'' ({{linktext|便所}}) from Japanese {{nihongo4||便所|benjo}}
| |
| − | *:Other Hokkien variants: 屎礐 (''sái-ha̍k''), 廁所 (''chhek-só͘'')
| |
| − | *'car' - ''chū-tōng-chhia'' ({{linktext|自動車}}) from Japanese {{nihongo4||自動車|jidōsha}}
| |
| − | *:Other Hokkien variants: 風車 (''hong-chhia''), 汽車 (''khì-chhia'')
| |
| − | *'to admire' - ''kám-sim'' ({{linktext|感心}}) from Japanese {{nihongo4||感心|kanshin}}
| |
| − | *:Other Hokkien variants: 感動 (''kám-tōng'')
| |
| − | *'fruit' - ''chúi-ké / chúi-kóe / chúi-kér'' (水果) from Mandarin ({{zh|c=水果|p=shuǐguǒ}})
| |
| − | *:Other Hokkien variants: 果子 (''ké-chí / kóe-chí / kér-chí'')
| |
| − |
| |
| − | [[Singaporean Hokkien]], [[Penang Hokkien]] and other Malaysian Hokkien dialects tend to draw loanwords from [[Malay language|Malay]], [[English language|English]] as well as other Chinese dialects, primarily [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]]. Examples include:
| |
| − | *'but' - ''tapi'', from Malay
| |
| − | *:Other Hokkien variants: 但是 （''tān-sī''）
| |
| − | *'doctor' - 老君 ''lu-gun'', from Malay ''dukun''
| |
| − | *:Other Hokkien variants: 醫生(''i-sing'')
| |
| − | *'stone/rock' - ''batu'', from Malay ''batu''
| |
| − | *:Other Hokkien variants: 石头(''tsio-tau'')
| |
| − | *'market' - 巴剎 ''pa-sat'', from Malay ''pasar'' from Persian ''[[bazaar]]'' (بازار)<ref name="似懂非懂2006">{{cite book|author=似懂非懂|title=卑南覓|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x6grAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1873#v=onepage&q&f=false|date=8 December 2006|publisher=Hyweb Technology Co. Ltd.|pages=1873–|id=GGKEY:TPZ824QU3UG}}</ref>
| |
| − | *:Other Hokkien variants: 市場 (''chhī-tiûⁿ'')
| |
| − | *'they' - 伊儂 ''i lâng'' from Teochew (i1 nang5)
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| − | *:Other Hokkien variants: 𪜶 (''in'')
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| − | *'together' - 做瓠 ''chò-bú'' from Teochew 做瓠 (jo3 bu5)
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| − | *:Other Hokkien variants: 做夥 (chò-hóe), 同齊 (tâng-chê) or 鬥陣 (tàu-tīn)
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| − | *茶箍 (Sap-bûn) from Malay ''sabun'' from Arabic ''ṣābūn'' (صابون).<ref name="似懂非懂2006" /><ref>http://banlam.tawa.asia/2012/10/soap-feizhao-hokkien-sabun.html</ref><ref name="Watters1889">{{cite book|author=Thomas Watters|title=Essays on the Chinese Language|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZxMTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA346 |year=1889|publisher=Presbyterian Mission Press|pages=346–}}</ref>
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| − |
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| − | [[Philippine Hokkien]] dialects, as a result of centuries-old contact with both Philippine language and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] also incorporate words from these languages. Examples include:
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| − | *'cup' - ''ba-su'', from Spanish ''vaso'' and Tagalog ''baso''
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| − | *:Other Hokkien variants: 杯子 (''poe-á'')
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| − | *'office' - ''o-pi-sin'', from Spanish ''oficina'' and Tagalog ''opisina''
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| − | *:Other Hokkien variants: 辦公室 (''pān-kong-sek'')
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| − | *'soap' - ''sa-bun'', from Spanish ''jabon'' and Tagalog ''sabon''
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| − | *:Other Hokkien variants:
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| − | *'but' - ''ka-so'', from Tagalog ''kaso''
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| − | *:Other Hokkien variants: 但是 (''tan-si'')
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| − | *: (''em-ko'')
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| − |
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| − | ==Standard Hokkien==
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| − | Hokkien-Taiwanese originated from [[Quanzhou]].<ref>http://www.taiwan.cn/twzlk/twgk/yywz/200512/t20051226_222977.htm</ref>{{better source|date=November 2016}} After the [[Opium War]] in 1842, [[Xiamen]] (Amoy) became one of the major [[treaty port]]s to be opened for trade with the outside world. From the mid-19th century onwards, [[Xiamen]] slowly developed to become the political and economical center of the Hokkien-Taiwanese speaking region in China. This caused [[Amoy dialect]] to gradually replace the position of dialect variants from [[Quanzhou]] and [[Zhangzhou]]. From the mid-19th century until the end of [[World War II]], {{citation needed|date=November 2016}} western diplomats usually learned Amoy as the preferred dialect if they were to communicate with the Hokkien-speaking populace in China or South-East Asia. In the 1940s and 1950s, [[Taiwan]]{{who|date=November 2016}} also held [[Amoy Minnan]] as its standard and tended to incline towards Amoy dialect.
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| − |
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| − | However, from the 1980s onwards, the development of [[Hokkien pop|Taiwanese Min Nan]] pop music and media industry in [[Taiwan]] caused the Hokkien cultural hub to shift from [[Xiamen]] to [[Taiwan]].{{citation needed|date=November 2016}} The flourishing [[Hokkien entertainment media|Taiwanese Min Nan entertainment and media industry]] from Taiwan in the 1990s and early 21st century led Taiwan to emerge as the new significant cultural hub for Hokkien.
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| − |
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| − | In the 1990s, marked by the liberalization of language development and [[mother tongue]] movement in Taiwan, [[Taiwanese Hokkien]] had undergone a fast pace in its development. In 1993, [[Taiwan]] became the first region in the world to implement the teaching of [[Taiwanese Hokkien]] in Taiwanese schools. In 2001, the local Taiwanese language program was further extended to all schools in Taiwan, and Taiwanese Hokkien became one of the compulsory local Taiwanese languages to be learned in schools.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nhu.edu.tw/~society/e-j/45/45-16.htm |title=《網路社會學通訊期刊》第45期，2005年03月15日 |publisher=Nhu.edu.tw |date= |accessdate=16 September 2010}}</ref> The [[mother tongue]] movement in Taiwan even influenced [[Xiamen]] (Amoy) to the point that in 2010, [[Xiamen]] also began to implement the teaching of Hokkien dialect in its schools.<ref>[http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_4d3f04b40100ibvw.html 有感于厦门学校“闽南语教学进课堂”_博客臧_新浪博客<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In 2007, the [[Ministry of Education (Republic of China)|Ministry of Education]] in [[Taiwan]] also completed the standardization of Chinese characters used for writing Hokkien and developed [[Taiwanese Romanization System|Tai-lo]] as the standard Hokkien pronunciation and romanization guide. A number of universities in Taiwan also offer Taiwanese degree courses for training Hokkien-fluent talents to work for the Hokkien media industry and education. Taiwan also has its own Hokkien literary and cultural circles whereby Hokkien poets and writers compose poetry or literature in Hokkien.
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| − |
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| − | Thus by the 21st century, Taiwan is one of the most significant Hokkien cultural hubs of the world. The historical changes and development in Taiwan had led [[Taiwanese Hokkien]] to become the more influential pole of the Hokkien dialect after the mid-20th century. Today, [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]] [[prestige dialect]] (Taiyu Youshiqiang/Tongxinqiang 台語優勢腔/通行腔), which is based on [[Tainan]] variant and heard on Taiwanese Hokkien media.
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| − |
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| − | ==Writing systems==
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| − | {{main article|Written Hokkien}}
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| − | {{further information|Comparison of Hokkien writing systems}}
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| − |
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| − | ===Chinese script===
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| − |
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| − | Hokkien dialects are typically written using [[Chinese character]]s (漢字, ''Hàn-jī''). However, the written script was and remains adapted to the literary form, which is based on [[classical Chinese]], not the vernacular and spoken form. Furthermore, the character inventory used for Mandarin (standard written Chinese) does not correspond to Hokkien words, and there are a large number of informal characters (替字, ''thè-jī'' or ''thòe-jī''; 'substitute characters') which are unique to Hokkien (as is the case with [[written Cantonese|Cantonese]]). For instance, about 20 to 25% of Taiwanese morphemes lack an appropriate or standard Chinese character.<ref name="mothertongue">{{cite web|url=http://www.pinyin.info/readings/mair/taiwanese.html|title=How to Forget Your Mother Tongue and Remember Your National Language|last=Mair|first=Victor H. |authorlink=Victor H. Mair |date=2010 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania|accessdate=2 July 2011}}</ref>
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| − |
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| − | While most Hokkien morphemes have standard designated characters, they are not always etymological or phono-semantic. Similar-sounding, similar-meaning or rare characters are commonly borrowed or substituted to represent a particular morpheme. Examples include "beautiful" (美 ''bí'' is the literary form), whose vernacular morpheme ''suí'' is represented by characters like 媠 (an obsolete character), 婎 (a vernacular reading of this character) and even 水 (transliteration of the sound ''suí''), or "tall" (高 ''ko'' is the literary form), whose morpheme ''kôan'' is 懸.<ref>{{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |script-title=zh:台語線頂字典 |language=Taiwanese, Chinese |trans-title=Taiwanese Hokkien Online Character Dictionary |url=http://210.240.194.97/TG/jitian/tgjt.asp}}</ref> Common grammatical particles are not exempt; the negation particle ''m̄'' (not) is variously represented by 毋, 呣 or 唔, among others. In other cases, characters are invented to represent a particular morpheme (a common example is the character [[wikt:𪜶|𪜶]] ''in'', which represents the personal pronoun "they"). In addition, some characters have multiple and unrelated pronunciations, adapted to represent Hokkien words. For example, the Hokkien word ''bah'' ("meat") has been reduced to the character 肉, which has etymologically unrelated colloquial and literary readings (''he̍k'' and ''jio̍k'', respectively).{{sfnp|Klöter|2005|p=21}}<ref>{{cite dictionary |script-title=zh:臺灣閩南語常用詞辭典 |trans-title=Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan |at=#2607 |publisher=Ministry of Education, R.O.C. |date=2013 |language=Chinese |url=http://twblg.dict.edu.tw/holodict_new/mobile/result_detail.jsp?n_no=2607}}</ref> Another case is the word 'to eat,' ''chia̍h'', which is often transcribed in Taiwanese newspapers and media as 呷 (a Mandarin transliteration, ''xiā'', to approximate the Hokkien term), even though its recommended character in dictionaries is 食.<ref name="tw-mand">{{cite journal|last=Hsieh|first=Shelley Ching-yu|date=October 2005|title= Taiwanese Loanwords in Mandarin Chinese: Language Interaction in Taiwan|journal=Taiwan Papers|publisher=Southern Taiwan University of Technology|volume=5|url=http://myweb.ncku.edu.tw/~shelley/publication/38._Taiwanese_Loan_Words_in_Mandarin_Chinese-Hsieh_Ching-yu.pdf|accessdate=1 July 2011}}</ref>
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| − |
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| − | Moreover, unlike Cantonese, Hokkien does not have a universally accepted standardized character set. Thus, there is some variation in the characters used to express certain words and characters can be ambiguous in meaning. In 2007, the [[Ministry of Education (Republic of China)|Ministry of Education]] of the [[Republic of China]] formulated and released a standard character set to overcome these difficulties.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edu.tw/files/bulletin/M0001/300iongji_960523.pdf|script-title=zh:參、臺灣閩南語|work=National Languages Committee|publisher=ROC Ministry of Education|language=Chinese|accessdate=2 July 2011}}</ref> These standard Chinese characters for writing [[Taiwanese Hokkien]] are now taught in schools in Taiwan.
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| − |
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| − | ===Latin script===
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| − | Hokkien, especially [[Taiwanese Hokkien]], is sometimes written in the [[Latin script]] using one of several alphabets. Of these the most popular is [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī|POJ]], developed first by [[Presbyterian]] [[missionaries]] in China and later by the indigenous [[Presbyterian Church in Taiwan]]. Use of this script and orthography has been actively promoted since the late 19th century. The use of a mixed script of Han characters and Latin letters is also seen, though remains uncommon. Other Latin-based alphabets also exist.
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| − |
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| − | Min Nan texts, all Hokkien, can be dated back to the 16th century. One example is the ''[[Doctrina Christiana en letra y lengua china]]'', presumably written after 1587 by the Spanish [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]] in the [[Philippines]]. Another is a [[Ming Dynasty]] script of a play called ''[[Tale of the Lychee Mirror]]'' (1566), supposedly the earliest Southern Min colloquial text, although it is written in [[Teochew dialect]].
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| − |
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| − | Taiwan has developed a Latin alphabet for [[Taiwanese Hokkien]], derived from POJ, known as [[Taiwanese Romanization System|Tai-lo]]. Since 2006, it has been officially promoted by Taiwan's [[Ministry of Education (Republic of China)|Ministry of Education]] and taught in Taiwanese schools. [[Xiamen University]] has also developed an alphabet based on Pinyin called [[Bbánlám pìngyīm]].
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| − |
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| − | ===Computing===
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| − | [[File:亻因 (in).png|thumb|The character for the third person pronoun (they) in some Hokkien dialects, 𪜶 (''in''), is now supported by the Unicode Standard at U+2A736.]]
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| − | Hokkien is registered as "Southern Min" per RFC 3066 as [http://www.iana.org/assignments/lang-tags/zh-min-nan zh-min-nan].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.evertype.com/standards/iso639/iana-lang-assignments.html |title=RFC 3066 Language code assignments |publisher=Evertype.com |date= |accessdate=16 September 2010}}</ref>
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| − |
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| − | When writing Hokkien in [[Chinese characters]], some writers create 'new' characters when they consider it impossible to use directly or borrow existing ones; this corresponds to similar practices in character usage in [[Written Cantonese|Cantonese]], [[Chữ Nôm|Vietnamese chữ nôm]], [[Hanja|Korean hanja]] and [[Kanji|Japanese kanji]]. Some of these are not encoded in [[Unicode]] (or the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646: [[Universal Character Set]]), thus creating problems in computer processing.
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| − |
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| − | All [[Latin]] characters required by [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī]] can be represented using [[Unicode]] (or the corresponding ISO/IEC 10646: [[Universal Character Set]]), using precomposed or combining (diacritics) characters. Prior to June 2004, the vowel akin to but more open than ''o'', written with a '''dot above right''', was not encoded. The usual workaround was to use the (stand-alone; spacing) character ''[[Interpunct]]'' (U+00B7, ''·'') or less commonly the combining character ''dot above'' (U+0307). As these are far from ideal, since 1997 proposals have been submitted to the ISO/IEC [[working group]] in charge of ISO/IEC 10646—namely, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070628163947/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/wg2/ ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2]—to encode a new combining character ''dot above right''. This is now officially assigned to U+0358 (see documents [http://www.evertype.com/standards/la/taioan.html N1593], [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311082219/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n2507 N2507], [https://web.archive.org/web/20060928065416/http://anubis.dkuug.dk/JTC1/SC2/WG2/docs/n2628 N2628],
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| − | [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n2699 N2699], and [http://std.dkuug.dk/jtc1/sc2/wg2/docs/n2713 N2713]). Font support is expected to follow.
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| − |
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| − | ==Cultural and political role==
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| − | {{See also|Hokkien culture}}
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| − | Hokkien (or Min Nan) can trace its roots through the [[Tang Dynasty]] and also even further to the people of the [[Baiyue]], the indigenous non-Han people of modern-day southern China.<ref>{{citation
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| − | | title = The Austroasiatics in Ancient South China: Some Lexical Evidence
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| − | | given1 = Jerry | surname1 = Norman | author-link1 = Jerry Norman (sinologist)
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| − | | given2 = Tsu-lin | surname2 = Mei
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| − | | journal = Monumenta Serica | year = 1976 | volume = 32 | pages = 274–301
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| − | | url = http://tlmei.com/tm17web/1976a_austroasiatics.pdf
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| − | | jstor = 40726203
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| − | | postscript = .
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| − | }}</ref> Min Nan (Hokkien) people call themselves "[[Names of China#Tang|Tang]] people," ({{zh|c=唐人|poj=Tn̂g-lâng|labels=no}}) which is synonymous to "Chinese people". Because of the widespread influence of the Tang culture during the great Tang dynasty, there are today still many Min Nan pronunciations of words shared by the [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Korean language|Korean]] and [[Japanese language|Japanese]] languages.
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| − |
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| − | In 2002, the [[Taiwan Solidarity Union]], a party with about 10% of the [[Legislative Yuan]] seats at the time, suggested making Taiwanese a second official language.<ref>{{cite news |author=Lin Mei-chun |title=Hokkien should be given official status, says TSU |url=http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/front/archives/2002/03/10/0000127068 |work=Taipei Times|date=10 Mar 2002 |page=1}}</ref> This proposal encountered strong opposition not only from [[Mainland Chinese|Mainlander]] groups but also from [[Hakka]] and [[Taiwanese aboriginal]] groups who felt that it would slight their home languages, as well as others including Hoklo who objected to the proposal on logistical grounds and on the grounds that it would increase ethnic tensions. Because of these objections, support for this measure was lukewarm among moderate [[Taiwan independence]] supporters, and the proposal did not pass.
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| − |
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| − | {| class="wikitable"
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| − | |-
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| − | ! English !! Chinese characters !! Mandarin Chinese !! Taiwanese Hokkien<ref>{{cite web |author=Iûⁿ, Ún-giân |url=http://210.240.194.97/iug/Ungian/SoannTeng/chil/Taihoa.asp |script-title=zh:台文/華文線頂辭典 |title=Tâi-bûn/Hôa-bûn Sòaⁿ-téng Sû-tián |trans-title=Taiwanese/Chinese Online Dictionary |accessdate=1 October 2014}}</ref>!! Korean !! Vietnamese !! Japanese
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| − | |-
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| − | | Book || 冊 || Cè || Chheh || Chaek || Tập/Sách || Saku/Satsu/Shaku
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| − | |-
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| − | | Bridge || 橋 || Qiáo || Kiô || Kyo || Cầu/Kiều || Kyō
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| − | |-
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| − | | Dangerous || 危險 || Wēixiǎn || Guî-hiám || Wiheom || Nguy hiểm || Kiken
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| − | |-
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| − | | Flag || 旗 || Qí || Kî || Ki || Cờ/Kỳ || Ki
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| − | |-
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| − | | Insurance || 保險 || Bǎoxiǎn || Pó-hiám || Boheom || Bảo hiểm || Hoken
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| − | |-
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| − | | News || 新聞 || Xīnwén || Sin-bûn || Shinmun || Tân Văn || Shinbun
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| − | |-
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| − | | Student || 學生 || Xuéshēng || Ha̍k-seng || Haksaeng || Học sinh || Gakusei
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| − | |-
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| − | | University || 大學 || Dàxué || Tāi-ha̍k (Tōa-o̍h) || Daehak || Đại học || Daigaku
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| − | |}
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| − |
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| − | ==See also==
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| − | {{Portal|China|Taiwan|Languages}}
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| − | *[[Penang Hokkien]]
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| − | *[[Taiwanese Hokkien]]
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| − | *[[Medan Hokkien]]
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| − | *[[Singaporean Hokkien]]
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| − | *[[Amoy dialect]]
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| − | *[[Lan-nang]] (Philippine dialect of Hokkien)
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| − | *[[Teochew dialect]]
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| − | *[[Languages of China]]
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| − | *[[Languages of Taiwan]]
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| − | *[[wikt:Appendix:Amoy Min Nan Swadesh list|Amoy Min Nan Swadesh list]]
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| − |
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| − | ==Notes==
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| − | {{notelist}}
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| − |
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| − | ==References==
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| − | {{reflist}}
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| − |
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| − | ==Further reading==
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| − | *{{cite book |last=Branner |first=David Prager |title= Problems in Comparative Chinese Dialectology — the Classification of Miin and Hakka |series= Trends in Linguistics series, no. 123 |year=2000 |publisher= Mouton de Gruyter |location= Berlin |isbn= 3-11-015831-0 }}
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| − | *{{cite book |last=Chung |first=R.-f |title= The segmental phonology of Southern Min in Taiwan |year=196 |publisher= Crane Pub. Co |location= Taipei |isbn= 957-9463-46-8 }}
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| − | *{{cite journal|last=DeBernardi |first=Jean |title=Linguistic nationalism: the case of Southern Min |journal=[[Sino-Platonic Papers]] |volume=25 |year=1991 |url=http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp025_taiwanese.html |publisher=University of Pennsylvania |location=Philadelphia |oclc=24810816}}
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| − | *{{cite book |last=Ding |first=Picus Sizhi |title=Southern Min (Hokkien) as a Migrating Language |publisher=Springer |year=2016 |isbn=978-981-287-593-8 }}
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| − | **{{cite journal |first=Norbert |last=Francis |title=''Southern Min (Hokkien) as a Migrating Language: A Comparative Study of Language Shift and Maintenance across National Borders'' by Picus Sizhi Ding (review) |journal=China Review International |volume=21 |number=2 |year=2014 |pages=128–133 |doi=10.1353/cri.2014.0008 |url=http://ling.auf.net/lingbuzz/003018 }}
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| − | *{{cite book |title=The Language of the Sangleys: A Chinese Vernacular in Missionary Sources of the Seventeenth Century |first=Henning |last=Klöter |publisher=BRILL |year=2011 |isbn=978-90-04-18493-0 }} An analysis and facsimile of the ''Arte de la Lengua Chio-chiu'' (1620), the oldest extant grammar of Hokkien.
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| − |
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| − | ==External links==
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| − | * {{cite book | title=Lìzhī jì |script-title =zh:荔枝記 | trans-title = Litchi Mirror Tale | url = http://digital.soas.ac.uk/LOAA000094 }} A playscript from the late 16th century.
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| − | * {{cite book | title = Doctrina Christiana | year = 1607 | location = Manila | url = http://bdh-rd.bne.es/viewer.vm?id=0000165702 }} Hokkien translation of the ''[[Doctrina Christiana]]''.
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| − | * {{cite book | title = Arte de la Lengua Chio-chiu | year = 1620 | location = Manila | url = http://bipadi.ub.edu/cdm/ref/collection/manuscrits/id/29744 }} A manual for learning Hokkien written by a Spanish missionary in the Philippines.
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| − | * {{cite book | title = Huìjí yǎ sú tōng shíwǔ yīn | script-title =zh:彙集雅俗通十五音 | trans-title = Compilation of the fifteen elegant and vulgar sounds | year = 1818 | url = https://archive.org/details/02077330.cn }} The oldest known rhyme dictionary of a [[Zhangzhou dialect]].
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| − | * {{cite book |last=Douglas |first=Carstairs |author-link=Carstairs Douglas |title= Chinese-English dictionary of the vernacular or spoken language of Amoy |publisher= Presbyterian Church of England |location= London |year= 1899 |url= https://archive.org/details/chineseenglishdict00doug }}
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| − | * {{cite book |last= Medhurst |first= Walter Henry |author-link=Walter Henry Medhurst |title= A dictionary of the Hok-këèn dialect of the Chinese language, according to the reading and colloquial idioms |publisher= C.J. Steyn |location=Macao |year= 1832 |url= https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofhokk00medhrich }}
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| − | * [http://alt.reasoning.cs.ucla.edu/jinbo/dzl/ 當代泉州音字彙], a dictionary of Quanzhou speech
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| − | * [http://voyager.jpl.nasa.gov/spacecraft/languages/amoy.html Voyager - Spacecraft - Golden Record - Greetings From Earth - Amoy], includes translation and sound clip
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| − | *: (The voyager clip says: {{lang|nan|Thài-khong pêng-iú, lín-hó. Lín chia̍h-pá--bē? Ū-êng, to̍h lâi gún chia chē--ô͘!}}<!-- The double hyphen is correctly a part of the POJ orthography. --> 太空朋友，恁好。恁食飽未？有閒著來阮遮坐哦!)
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| − | {{Southern Min Languages}}
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| − | {{Min Chinese}}
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| − | {{Chinese language}}
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| − | {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2011}}
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| − |
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| − | [[Category:Hokkien| ]]
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| − | [[Category:Southern Min-language dialects]]
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| − | [[Category:Languages of China]]
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| − | [[Category:Languages of Taiwan]]
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| − | [[Category:Languages of Malaysia]]
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| − | [[Category:Languages of Indonesia]]
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| − | [[Category:Languages of the Philippines]]
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| − | [[Category:Southern Min| ]]
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